revisionist-70

以色列的政党制度是什么？

从字面上看，post-revisionist era 的意思是“后（历史）修正主义时代”。这个词中的 revisionist 与当年社会主义阵营的“修正主义”争论不是一回事。这里所说的 post-revisionist 是指对某段历史从新认识和定位的历史观提出之后的阶段。在理论界涉及 post-revisionist era 的通常是两个不同的历史研究范畴。一是美国教育领域里的 post-revisionist era，特指上世纪70's and 80's 之后的教育理念，即“每个儿童都能受教育”（no children left behind）的教育普及理念直至今天的这段历史。另一个是几乎在同一时期里，历史与社会研究领域里出现的对东西方冷战的反思，其 post-revisionist era 是指东欧社会主义阵营退出历史舞台至今的这段历史。

求斯大林英文平身简历。

以色列目前有三个主要大党，左翼的工党、右翼的Likud（团结的意思，中文通常译利库德集团）、及总理Olmert的Kadima（前进党，前年由Likud分裂），今天的工党和Likud，原来都是30-70年代之间，分久必合、合久必分、合并重组的产物。

工党可追溯至1930年，前身是以色列首任总理Ben Gurion於1930年成立的Mapai(以色列工人)，并吸纳另了一左翼政党Achdat Haavodah，AH党於二战後又分裂出来。到60年代中段，Ben Gurion於党投票中落败，Ben Gurion於是又另起炉灶，成立另一个政党Rafi，但Rafi只在69年的大选中赢了四席。（共有120席）

同一年，以色列的左翼政党又重组，Rafi、Achdat Haavodah及Mapai合并成现在的工党。Ben Gurion随後又组另一个政党State list，并於1973年与右翼的Likud合并。

Mapai领导的联盟，由以色列48年建国起，一直不间段执政了30年，直至77年被Begin领导的Likud打败。以色列工党影响力大，因为开国者、Zionist全部都是东欧的犹太人，深受社会主义及共产主义影响，要在以色列建立社会主义国家，所以英国到後来又不太支持犹太人建国，美国一开始也对以色列有顾忌，就是担心以色列会成为蘇联的盟友。

Likud的前身，则是源自Begin30、40年代创立的恐怖武装组织Irgun（主张袭击英国人，争取以色列建国），以色列建国後，所有武装组织都要解体，组成Israel Defensive Force（IDF、即以军），Irgun的领导则筹组了Herut党。与Mapai比较，Herut的意识形态源自Jabotinsky 30年创立的Revisionist Party，相信自由经济，及及主张更激进的方式建国，认为立刻发动战争，把约旦河东西两岸的土地也占回来。

巴勒斯坦大部份犹太人来自东欧（这班人通常称为Ashkenazim，Ashkenazim是德国一个地名），Mapai比Herut更令选民受落，Herut一直只是国会的小数。直至50、60年代起，另一类犹太人（Sephardim，字面解西班牙）从中东、主要是伊拉克移民以色列，以色列的政治生态才扭转。（犹太人於BC567年，被巴比伦灭国及充军，部份犹太人就落地生根，直至2500年後被伊拉克政府赶走。）

这批穷困的新移民Sephardim，不支持代表工人的Mapai，反而去支持Begin的Herut，1965年，Herut与Liberals合并成Gahal，到1973年再吸纳Ben Gurion的State List成为Likud。选民结构改变，加上工党连续执政30年，即使由形象较讨好的Rabin於74年上台执政（但因太太被发现有外国户口而辞职，90年代再获选总理，但被刺杀），也难逃被叮走的命运。

Begin连续参选九次，终於在77年的选举当选总理。一个政治人物若落败多於两三次，东山在起的机会微乎其微，Begin可是九命怪猫，输了八次、最终也成为总理，应该创了纪录。

希望可以帮帮大家，日後理解以色列的政治。

为什么橄榄球主要是用手玩的，美国人还是把它称为”football“

Stalin, Joseph

I INTRODUCTION 。

Stalin, Joseph (1879-1953), general secretary of the Communist Party of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) from 1922 to 1953, the despotic ruler who more than any other individual molded the features that characterized the Soviet regime and shaped the direction of Europe after World War II ended in 1945.。

Stalin was born Iosif Vissarionovich Dzhugashvili in the town of Gori, Georgia, which at the time was part of the vast Russian Empire. He was the third and only surviving child of a cobbler and a housecleaner. In 1888 Stalin began attending the Gori Church School, where he learned Russian and excelled at his studies, winning a scholarship to the Tbilisi Theological Seminary in the Georgian capital in 1894.。

II YOUNG REVOLUTIONARY 。

Stalin began his studies at the seminary as a devout believer in Orthodox Christianity. He was soon exposed to the radical ideas of fellow students, however, and began to read illegal literature based on the works of German political philosopher Karl Marx. In 1899, just as he was about to graduate, he gave up his religious education to devote his time to the revolutionary movement against the Russian monarchy. While employed as an accountant in Tbilisi, Stalin spread Marxist propaganda among railway workers on behalf of the local Social Democratic organization. After moving to the seaport of Bat’umi, where he organized a large workers’ demonstration in 1902, Stalin was hunted down and arrested by the imperial police. A year later he was sentenced to exile in the Russian region of Siberia. He soon managed to escape, however, and was back in Georgia by early 1904.。

When the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP) split into Menshevik and Bolshevik factions in 1903, Stalin was drawn to the more militant Bolsheviks, who were led by Vladimir Lenin. In Georgia, where Menshevism predominated, Stalin soon gained a reputation as a belligerent and staunch follower of Lenin, whom he had first met in 1905 at a conference in Finland.。

In 1905 Stalin married Yekaterina Svanidze, a Georgian woman who died two years later. Stalin was arrested and exiled by imperial police in 1908 because of his illegal underground activities. His escape the next year was followed by further arrests, exiles, and secret trips abroad during the years leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917. In 1912 Lenin elevated Stalin, who by this time had adopted the Russian pseudonym meaning “man of steel,” to the leading Bolshevik Party body, the Central Committee. At Lenin’s behest, Stalin wrote his chief theoretical work, Marxism and the National Question. Stalin was arrested and sent to Siberia before the essay was published in 1913.。

Stalin was released from exile upon the overthrow of the Russian monarchy in the February (or March, in the New Style calendar) phase of the Russian Revolution. He went to Petrograd (later Leningrad; now Saint Petersburg), where he became a member of the party’s Central Committee bureau. He then asserted editorial control over the party newspaper, Pravda (Truth).。

Although he did not play a prominent role in the Bolshevik takeover of the government in October (November, New Style), Stalin became a member of the new government’s Soviet (Council) of People’s Commissars (Russian acronym, Sovnarkom), heading the Commissariat for Nationality Affairs. Given the vital importance of nationality issues at a time when the Bolsheviks were trying to keep the territories of the former Russian Empire under their power, Stalin’s post was crucial to the Bolshevik victory in the ensuing Russian Civil War (1918-1921). He was elected a member of the Communist Party’s highest decision-making body, the Politburo, and the Central Committee’s Orgburo (Organizational Bureau) in 1919. As a political commissar in the Red Army during the height of the civil war, Stalin supervised military activities against the counterrevolutionary White forces along the western front that were led by General Pyotr Wrangel. During the war between Russia and Poland from 1920 to 1921, his decisions as a political commissar ended in disaster and led to a long-standing conflict with Commissar of War Leon Trotsky. Meanwhile, Stalin, whose first wife had died in 1907, married Nadezhda Alliluyeva in 1918 and moved with the government from Petrograd to Moscow.。

III SOVIET DICTATOR 。

After the Bolshevik victory in the civil war, Stalin threw himself into organizational work and administrative tasks. Having served as commissar for state control since 1919, he continued this post until 1923, while in 1922 he was elected general secretary of the Communist Party, a position that gave him control over appointments and established a base for his political power. Stalin’s rude and aggressive behavior brought him into conflict with the ailing Lenin, who shortly before his death in 1924 wrote his political “testament” in which he voiced misgivings about Stalin. In the testament Lenin expressed doubt whether the party’s general secretary would use his authority with sufficient caution, and he called for Stalin’s removal from the post. Adroit political maneuvering enabled Stalin to have Lenin’s testament discounted and suppressed, however, while Lenin’s death freed Stalin to establish a ruling coalition with Lev Kamenev and Grigory Zinovyev, excluding Stalin’s rival Trotsky from the succession struggle. Stalin reversed his course in 1925 and joined with Nikolay Bukharin and Aleksey Rykov in a new coalition against his former partners, who in turn joined with Trotsky in 1926 to form an intraparty bloc against Stalin known as the “Left Opposition.” Once Stalin had succeeded in defeating these opponents, in 1928 he then turned against his former allies Bukharin and Rykov. By the end of 1929 Stalin had succeeded in political maneuvers that eliminated his political opponents and established him as the supreme leader of the USSR.。

IV DOMESTIC POLICIES 。

In the late 1920s Stalin decided the New Economic Policy (NEP), which Lenin had introduced in 1921 to facilitate postwar economic recovery by encouraging limited private enterprise, no longer worked. The rate of economic growth was declining and peasants were not producing enough grain to satisfy demand. Instead of giving the peasants economic incentives to raise production, Stalin chose a policy that forced them into state-owned collective farms. Simultaneously, he pressed forward with a program of rapid industrialization, which began with the ambitious first Five-Year Plan in 1928. Stalin believed the Soviet Union had to industrialize rapidly in order to strengthen the Communist regime and enable the country to defend itself against foreign enemies. The plan, which was financed by exploiting resources in the countryside, resulted in the near collapse of Soviet agriculture and the deaths of millions of peasants from famine. Industrialization was achieved, but at great cost.。

Although his hold on absolute power was unchallenged by the early 1930s, Stalin worried about potential conspiracies against him, especially after the suicide of his second wife in late 1932. Stalin set in motion a massive purge of the party following the assassination of Leningrad party chief Sergey Kirov in December 1934, which many have speculated was masterminded by Stalin because he viewed Kirov as a threat. Although the purge began gradually, with selective arrests in 1934 and 1935, by 1936 the Soviet secret police were arresting and executing party members by the thousands. Highly publicized trials of leading party figures—including Kamenev, Zinovyev, and Bukharin—were staged in Moscow and resulted in their swift execution on trumped-up charges. In 1937 and 1938 the terror spread to all of Soviet society, including the military high command. Estimates of those arrested and executed from 1936 to 1938 in the Great Purge range between 1.5 million and 7 million. Countless others were imprisoned in forced labor camps. Winding down at the end of 1938, the purge left Stalin with a new generation of officials loyal to him alone. However, the decimation of the military ranks left the country more vulnerable to the threat from Adolf Hitler’s Germany during World War II.。

V FOREIGN POLICIES 。

Although Stalin’s policy in the mid-1930s was to support the Communist International (Comintern) in forming a popular front against the rise of fascism in Europe, he gave up the idea of collective security with the West and in August 1939 decided upon an alliance with Nazi Germany. The “Secret Protocols” of the German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact carved up Eastern Europe into German and Soviet spheres of influence; the Soviets allowed Germany to invade Poland in exchange for Hitler’s promised nonaggression against Soviet territory. Despite warnings, Stalin was taken by surprise in June 1941 when the Nazis launched Operation Barbarossa, a three-pronged attack against the USSR. Although the Soviets were poorly prepared for the invasion and at first suffered huge losses, the country rallied behind Stalin, who assumed direct leadership of the war effort. Following their defeat at the Battle of Stalingrad in January 1943, the Nazis lost the initiative and were finally forced to retreat in 1945, which allowed Soviet troops to move into Eastern Europe. Having obtained recognition from Allied governments of a Soviet sphere of influence in these newly liberated countries, Stalin established puppet Communist regimes and drew the so-called Iron Curtain between Eastern and Western Europe.。

In 1947 the Soviets established the Communist Information Bureau (Cominform), an international body of Communist leaders that was to ensure conformity with the Soviet line. Yugoslavia was expelled from the alliance in 1948 after Stalin condemned renegade Yugoslav leader Josip Broz Tito for refusing to follow Soviet orders. That same year Moscow announced a blockade of Berlin, fueling the Cold War with the West. Stalin was determined to catch up with the United States in developing the atomic bomb; he ordered that no resources be spared toward that goal, which was achieved in August 1953, shortly after his death.。

A Final Years 。

By 1950 Stalin’s mental and physical health had begun to deteriorate and he was absent from the Kremlin, the government headquarters in Moscow, for long periods of time. His subordinates were fearful of becoming victims of Stalin’s growing paranoia, which manifested itself in plans for another purge. In January 1953 Stalin ordered the arrest of a group of Kremlin doctors on charges of plotting the medical murder of high-level Soviet officials. Just as a renewal of mass terror seemed imminent, Stalin died of complications from a stroke in March. Although the nation was plunged into grief, Stalin’s political successors expressed relief and moved quickly to reverse some of the most brutal features of his regime. Nikita Khrushchev, who replaced Stalin as general secretary (called first secretary until 1966) of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU), denounced Stalin’s methods of rule and political theories, known as Stalinism, in his “secret speech” to the 20th Party Congress in 1956.。

B Evaluation

Stalin’s historical legacy is overwhelmingly negative. Although his policies transformed the USSR from an agrarian-based society into an industrialized nation with a powerful military arsenal, the transformation was accomplished at the cost of millions of lives. Stalin’s militant distrust of the West and his assertion of Soviet dominance in Eastern Europe gave rise to the Cold War. His purges of society through violent police terror left a permanent scar on the collective memory of the people under his rule. Although admired by some Russians, most would agree with the assessment in the West that Stalin was one of the cruelest dictators in history.。

五月花号 电影在线观看或者下载！

While calling the world's most popularsport "soccer" is typically depicted as a symbol of Americanignorance, the reason we don't call it "football" like the rest ofthe world is actually Britain'sfault.。

美国人称世界上最大众的运动为“soccer”，这一直被认为是美国人无知的象征，而我们美国人之所以不称足球为“football”，这完全是英国人的错。

The word "soccer" is a Britishinvention that British people only stopped using about 30 years ago, accordingto a new paper by University of Michigan professorStefan *河蟹*manski.。

“soccer”这个单词是英国人的发明，根据密歇根大学Stefan *河蟹*manski教授在一份论文中的说法，英国人直到30年前才停止使用这种说法。

The word "soccer" comes from theuse of the term "association football" in Britain, and it goes back 200years.。

“soccer”这个词源于英国人对"associationfootball"这个词汇的使用，而这一词汇的使用可以追溯到200年前。

In the early-1800s a bunch of Britishuniversities took "football" — a medieval game — and started playingtheir own versions of it, all under different rules. To standardized thingsacross the country, these games were categorized under different organizationswith different names.。

在19世纪初期，一些英国大学里开始玩起了足球（football）——一种源于中世纪的比赛——而且每个大学的玩法都不一样。为了统一标准，这些比赛被归类到拥有不同名字的比赛项目中去。

One variant of the game you played withyour hands became "rugby football." Another variant came to be knownas "association football" after the Football Association formed topromote the game in 1863, 15 years after the rules were made at Cambridge.。

其中用手来玩的一类就变成了“rugbyfootball”。另外一种变体就是所谓的"associationfootball"了，1963年英国足球协会成立以推动这项运动的发展，而在此之前的15年前，这项运动的规则就已经在剑桥定下来了。

"Rugbyfootball" became "ruggle" for short. "Associationfootball" became "soccer."。

"Rugby football"后来简称成"ruggle"。而"Association football"后来简称成了“soccer”。

After these two sports spread across the Atlantic, Americans invented their own variant of thegame that they simply called "football" in the early 1900s.。

当这两种运动传播到大西洋彼岸时，美国人在20世纪初据此发明了自己的版本，并简单称之为"football"。

"Association football" became"soccer" in America,and what was called "gridiron" in Britainbecame simply "football" in America.。

所以"Associationfootball"在美国人们称之为"soccer"，而英国人称之为"gridiron"（英式橄榄球）的运动，美国人则称之为"football"（美式橄榄球）。

The interesting thing here is that Britsstill used "soccer" regularly for a huge chunk of the 20th century.Between 1960 and 1980, "soccer" and "football" were"almost interchangeable" in Britain, *河蟹*manski found.。

有趣的是，在20世纪的大部分时间里，英国仍然习惯的称呼足球为"soccer"。*河蟹*manski 教授发现，1960年到1980年间，在英国，"soccer" 和 "football"这两种叫法几乎是可以互换的。

Then everything changed (via *河蟹*manski):。

随后一切都发生了改变（*河蟹*manski说）：

"Since 1980 the usage of the word'soccer' has declined in British publications, and where it is used, it usuallyrefers to an American context. This decline seems to be a reaction against theincreased usage in the USwhich seems to be associated with the highpoint of the NASL around 1980."。

“从1980年代以来，英国出版物中越来越少用到'soccer'，如果有使用到的话，那也是用来指代美国足球的。英国对这个单词的少用似乎是对美国对这个词的多用所做出的反应，1980年代左右，北美足球联赛（NorthAmerican Soccer League）异常的火爆。

British people stopped saying"soccer" because of its American connotations.。

由于这个单词所具有的美国内涵，所以英国人开始停止使用"soccer"。

So no, it's not wrong to call it"soccer" if you're American.。

所以说，美国人称足球为"soccer"并非是一种错。

评论翻译

Trident 3 hours ago。

Lived in London during the mid-70's and never onceheard the game referred to as soccer (although I never heard anyone disparage theterm soccer there, either).。

Think the Aussies refer to it as soccer, too.。

Go USA!!!(although we could use a good nickname, like Australia's Socceroos). 。

70年代，我在伦敦生活过，从来没听过英国人称足球为soccer（也没有看到哪个英国人对这个单词表示轻蔑）。

貌似澳洲人也称足球为soccer。

美国队加油（尽管我们也可以给美国队娶一个更好的绰号，比如澳洲足球国家队就叫做Socceroos（足球袋鼠队））

GerryInColorado 53 minutes ago。

Brits call it football.Americans aren't British - since 1776。

also, in America it's:。

a field not a pitch。

a cleat not a boot。

sudden death not golden goal。

a game not a match。

zero not nil

英国人称足球为football。可自从1776年来，美国人就不是英国人了。

还有，在美国：

球场叫field 而不是 pitch。

防滑鞋叫cleat 而不是 boot。

一球制胜叫suddendeath 而不是 goldengoal。

比赛叫game 而不是 match。

0叫zero 而不是 nil

buck 1 hour ago。

The story never mentions it, but the termfootball goes back centuries and has nothing to do with kicking the ball. Itmeans a game on your feet and not on a horse 。

这篇文章没有提到的是football这种叫法可以追溯到这之前的几个世纪前，和踢球一点关系没有。意思是脚上的一种比赛，而且不是骑在马上。

Derek Smith 48 minutes ago。

Why is it every time some stupidconservative has to show off their proud arrogance and ignorance about howsoccer is inferior to American sports? AND THEN these conservatives pointfingers to the rest of the world about how they should learn more from us. Whenforeigners defend their countries against our conservatives, our conservativesblame Obama for Americalosing people's envy and respect around the world. 。

为什么总有一些愚蠢的保守派人士出来展示自己的自大和无知并总认为足球运动低劣于美国的其他运动项目？然后这些保守人士认为全世界都应该向美国学习。当外国人不认同我们这些保守人士的看法并为自己国家辩护时，我们的保守派人士就会去指责奥巴马，认为是他令美国失去了别国的尊敬和羡慕。

Bobby 1 hour ago。

I've wrote many papers on this in college.The only thing I had not heard yet was the reason for the name. Thanks Yahoo! Finally,a story I can say is completely useful :) 。

在大学里时，我就这个话题写过多篇论文。我之前还真不知道原来足球的名字有这么一段历史。谢谢你雅虎！这篇文章对我来说太有用了。

Jes 6 minutes ago。

amazing really...so instead of learning andcalling it 'football' as the name of game is...we continue with our ignorance,calling it soccer...because we're American. 。

真是很神奇，我们美国没有学着去称足球为'football'，反而，我们我们继续着自己的自大并称其为soccer，就因为我们是美国人。

william 33 minutes ago。

I don琀 buy it. My dad has a Britishpublication from that late 50s in which they refer to Football, nothing on''soccer''. By the way, Football (soccer) hardly exists in Canada since when it comes tosports, they are basically an american colony. 。

我不认同文章的说法。我爸爸有一本50年代末期的英国出版物，其中就称足球为Football，根本就没有提到''soccer'。还有，自从足球成为一项运动以来，这种运动基本上没在加拿大存在过，因为加拿大基本上是美国的一个殖民地。

FC1 57 minutes ago。

Whatever helps the americans sleep atnight. Always trying to make their version of things so the rest of the worldcan catch on but in this case they have failed miserably. Football is Football& Rugby is Rugby. The nfl is a mix of bothRugby & Football. So in reality it is a copy and its name should be changedimmediately. 。

这一切都是美国人为了让自己在夜里能够睡得舒服。美国人总是想创造出自己的版本，然后要求全世界都跟随，但是在足球的叫法上，美国人彻底的输了。Football 就是Football，Rugby （英式橄榄球）就是Rugby。美国的全国橄榄球联盟（National Football League）其实是英式橄榄球和足球的结合体，所以事实上这是美国在模仿，应该马上对名字进行修改。

brjbbrjb 9 hours ago。

It's actually kind of amazing that Americadid not adopt another official language like French, German, of even Spanishconsidering history. 。

考虑到美国的历史，令人感到惊奇的是美国尽管没有采用法语、德语或者西班牙语作为另外一种官方语言。

Cephalopod 1 hour ago。

What this American doesn't explain is WHYon earth did the septics decide to call gridiron - football? This "academic" is writing complete and utter rubbish. Being born in 1934, myfather NEVER called football by the name " soccer". Classic Americanrevisionist historical rubbish. 。

这名学者写的这篇文章完全是垃圾，我父亲生在1934年，他从来没称足球为"soccer"，这又是一篇美国历史修正主义的垃圾文章。

Charles 11 minutes ago。

American Football dates back to 1880. 。

美式橄榄球可追溯到1880年。

Andy 1 hour ago。

I don't see the big deal.。

Americans and British have been feuding over words for years.。

Cookie and biscuit. 。

Air and aero.

Semi and lorry.。

Football and soccer. 。

我觉得这没什么。

美国人和英国人在单词的拼写上一直有争执。

Cookie 和 biscuit. 。

Air 和 aero.

Semi 和 lorry.

Football 和 soccer.。

WingChang 3 hours ago。

To call FOOTball a sport that you play withyour HANDS, it stupidity at its best. The only reason it's called SOCCER in thiscountry is to protect the NFL and college leagues. That is bound to change verysoon. 。

把用手来玩的橄榄球称为FOOTball，这真是有够蠢的。美国之所以称足球为SOCCER，是为了保护全国橄榄球联盟和大学生联盟。一定得改变这种现状。

GRE是什么考试？考些什么内容？

第三节"五月花号"

詹姆斯敦殖民地建立13年后，在它的北面，又建立了一个英国人的殖民点--普利茅斯殖民地，普利茅斯殖民地的创建者通过订立《五月花号公约》，把旧大陆的民主火种--国家契约理论带到了北美新大陆。

（一）清教徒

早期来北美殖民地的移民除出于经济利益上的考虑外，对宗教自由的热情也是一个重要因素，特别是在北部的新英格兰地区。

在国王亨利八世1536～1540年主导宗教改革使英国教会脱离罗马天主教后，英国各宗教派系的分歧与矛盾日益严重。其中部分教会成员宗教观点比较激进，他们认为当时的英国国教对于改革宗教礼拜仪式与清除天主教影响的措施还不彻底，他们反对教会对天主教的妥协措施，特别反对主教的种种特权，提倡教徒个人进行直接的宗教体验，要求改革复杂的宗教仪式，提倡简单的宗教礼仪。这一宗教派别在历史上被简称为"清教"。

当时的英国政府与教会的当权者对于清教的观点与影响十分惧怕，千方百计对他们采取各种宗教迫害措施，很多清教徒被迫离开英国，一些人来到在宗教方面比较开明的尼德兰（包括现今的荷兰与比利时）地区，但有一些清教徒在尼德兰找不到归属感，于是便计划前往北美新大陆，希望到那里找寻他们梦寐以求的宗教自由。

（二）"五月花号"

向往新大陆的清教徒中有个叫威廉·布鲁斯特（William Brewster）的人，他认识伦敦弗吉尼亚公司的财务主管桑兹爵士，通过这层关系，他们获得了在公司北方领土的定居权，并得到伦敦一位铁矿商人提供的部分经济资助。在一切准备就绪后，他们离开了尼德兰，回到英国，在此开始了奔向新大陆的历史行程。

1620年9月16日，大约102人一起登上名叫"五月花号"的轮船，离开了英国的普利茅斯港。这102人里有一半是清教徒，其他则是破产的农民、工匠与渔民。"五月花号"原本是一艘往返于英国与法国之间运酒的商船，经过改装后全长27米，负载180吨。经过六十多天的颠沛流离，11月19日，移民们终于看到了北美洲东海岸的科德角（Cape Cod），他们准备继续航行到哈德逊河（当时那里是弗吉尼亚公司的管辖范围），但由于遭遇海上风浪，风向改变，再加上携带的食物与淡水即将用尽，他们只得折返科德角。11月21日，他们在普利茅斯湾登上了美洲新大陆的土地。

由于没能按计划到达弗吉尼亚殖民地，他们的土地许可证在那里没有法律效力，移民们又存在着宗教信仰上的分歧，在此背景下，为有效管理与约束移民队伍，清教徒的领袖威廉·布鲁斯特与威廉·布拉德福德等人共同协商，决定为未来的定居地拟订一项管理原则，后人称为《普利茅斯联合协议》或《五月花号公约》。这份公约要求移居到新大陆的人们秉承清教徒的宗教信仰，同时宣誓表达对以英王为首的英国政府的忠诚，并决定自愿组成"公民自治团体"，拟定公正而平等之法律、规章，并保证遵守与服从。这一公约构成了美国宪政的雏形，后来的历史学家把它看成是美国历史上第一个具有政治性质的契约文件。它在美国政治与法律制度演进中具有极为重要的意义与影响。

"五月花号"选择的上岸时间与地点对移民十分不利，那时正值隆冬季节，而且当地土地坚硬多石，很不适合农耕。结果没过一年就有至少一半的移民死于严寒与疾病，等熬到第二年春天时，幸存下来的移民不超过50人。但存活下来的移民并没被困难所吓倒，他们建立起坚固的房子，并且学会了捕鱼与打猎，友好的印第安人还教会他们如何种植玉米，尽管生活非常艰苦，但当1622年有船只路过答应带他们回英国时，没有一个移民打退堂鼓提出回去。

但由于一直没获得国王的特许状，法律地位不明朗，1691年，普利茅斯殖民地被并合并到马萨诸塞殖民地。

（三）"山巅之城"

1620年，普利茅斯公司的部分员工组成马萨诸塞湾公司，在1629年得到英国王室特许后，该公司委托英国萨福克地区的庄园主约翰·温斯罗普安排移民计划。1630年3月，约翰·温斯罗普率领一千多名宗教态度较温和的清教徒乘坐5艘船只来到马萨诸塞湾。在马萨诸塞湾公司的资助下，后来来到马萨诸塞的移民逐渐超过2万人。不久，马萨诸塞湾公司总部由英国搬到殖民地，此后，马萨诸塞殖民地很快以波士顿为中心发展起来。

马萨诸塞的清教徒怀着虔诚的宗教理想来到新大陆，他们力图在这里建立起教义上所讲的"山巅之城"，即为全人类树立圣洁的神圣榜样。为此当地的政府颁布法律要求人们严格遵守教义，并严惩酗酒与通奸这类不道德的行为，即使男士的头发稍微长一点都会遇到麻烦。这些严厉而繁琐的清规戒律很快引起了一部分移民的不满。居住在塞勒姆镇的罗杰·威廉斯（Roger Williams）牧师坚决反对当地政府的政教合一政策，他认为教会与政府应该是分离、互不干涉的，政府不能实施宗教法律，宗教本身最终依赖于个人的觉悟和感觉。他的观点很快为当地清教徒的统治者所不容，1635年，他被马萨诸塞综合法庭驱逐出殖民地。威廉斯牧师和他的支持者逃到纳拉甘希特湾，在那里建立了一个名为罗德岛的新殖民地，并在那里推行政教分离的政策。

（四）北美殖民地体系的建立。

清教徒建立的另外一个殖民地是宾夕法尼亚殖民地，它是由来自清教中贵格宗的领袖威廉·佩恩（William Penn）建立的，贵格宗教徒拒绝宣誓并拒绝服兵役，很快为英国政府所不容，大量的教徒纷纷移民到北美。佩恩的父亲是英国著名的军事将领，佩恩本人也很有能力，1681年3月14日，他从英国国王查理一世那里获得了特许状，拥有了宾夕法尼亚地区土地的所有权，1682年，佩恩建立了费城，这个名字是他用两个希腊词合成的，表达了他计划进行和睦相处的神圣实验的良好愿望。佩恩施行的宗教自由政策以及他公正处事的良好声誉，很快吸引了大量来自欧洲的移民，其中很多是来自德国为躲避宗教迫害的新教小派别的教徒。

到18世纪下半叶，英国的殖民者已经在大西洋沿岸建立了13个殖民地，分别是新罕布什尔、马萨诸塞、罗德岛、康涅狄格、纽约、新泽西、宾夕法尼亚、特拉华、马里兰、弗吉尼亚、北卡罗莱纳、南卡罗莱纳及乔治亚，这13个殖民地初步奠定了北美殖民地体系的雏形。副标题：一次改变世界的航行。

内容简介 1620年11月11日，经过在海上66天的漂泊之后，“五月花号”大帆船向陆地靠近。船上有102名乘客。他们的目的地是哈德逊河口地区，但由于海上风浪险恶，他们错过了目标，于是就在现在的科德角外普罗温斯顿港抛锚。由于那时已是深秋，他们决定就在那儿登陆而不继续航行。为了建立一个大家都能受到约束的自治基础，他们在上岸之前签订了一份公约。

这些乘客中约三分之一是清教徒，他们最初曾逃到荷兰的莱登去寻求宗教自由。后来这一批英国殖民者全都被称为朝圣者。他们曾与伦敦的弗吉尼亚殖民公司谈判并达成一项协议，即弗吉尼亚殖民公司授权他们在该公司辽阔的土地上任选一块地方定居并管理自己。

41名男乘客在船上签了这份公约。在这份后来被称为《“五月花号”公约》的文件里，签署人立誓创立一个自治团体，这个团体是基于被管理者的同意而成立的，而且将依法而治。

这份公约是由“五月花号”船上的每... (展开全部) 1620年11月11日，经过在海上66天的漂泊之后，“五月花号”大帆船向陆地靠近。船上有102名乘客。他们的目的地是哈德逊河口地区，但由于海上风浪险恶，他们错过了目标，于是就在现在的科德角外普罗温斯顿港抛锚。由于那时已是深秋，他们决定就在那儿登陆而不继续航行。为了建立一个大家都能受到约束的自治基础，他们在上岸之前签订了一份公约。

这些乘客中约三分之一是清教徒，他们最初曾逃到荷兰的莱登去寻求宗教自由。后来这一批英国殖民者全都被称为朝圣者。他们曾与伦敦的弗吉尼亚殖民公司谈判并达成一项协议，即弗吉尼亚殖民公司授权他们在该公司辽阔的土地上任选一块地方定居并管理自己。

41名男乘客在船上签了这份公约。在这份后来被称为《“五月花号”公约》的文件里，签署人立誓创立一个自治团体，这个团体是基于被管理者的同意而成立的，而且将依法而治。

这份公约是由“五月花号”船上的每一个家长，每一个成年单身男子和大多数雇佣的男仆所签署的。由于妇女那时没有政治权利，所以没有请他们签署。

圣诞后一天，102名定居者在现在的马萨诸塞州的普利茅斯上岸。那些参加签约的人组成了普利茅斯殖民地的自治体，这个自治体具有选举官员、通过法律和吸收新的投票委员的权利。那年11月11日，在下锚于荒凉的海港的一条船上所达成的公约为在新大陆上建立自治和法制打下了基础。

以上帝的名义，阿门。我们这些签署人是蒙上帝保佑的大不列颠、法兰西和爱尔兰的国王——信仰和教会的捍卫者詹姆斯国王陛下的忠顺臣民。

为了上帝的荣耀，为了增强基督教每仰，为了提高我们国王和国家的荣誉，我们飘洋过海，在弗吉尼亚北部开发第一个殖民地。我们在上帝面前共同立誓签约，自愿结为一民众自治团体。为了使上述目的能得到更好的实施、维护和发展，将来凡是依此而制定颁布的被认为是对这个殖民地全体人民都最合适、最方便的法律、法规、条令、宪章和制度，我们都保证遵守和服从。

圣诞后一天，102名定居者在现在的马萨诸塞州的普利茅斯上岸。那些参加签约的人组成了普利茅斯殖民地的自治体，这个自治体具有选举官员、通过法律和吸收新的投票委员的权利。那年11月11日，在下锚于荒凉的海港的一条船上所达成的公约为在新大陆上建立自治和法制打下了基础。 这是一艘神秘的船，她转载着美国。通过这艘船，你可以了解美国；你想了解美国，必须通过这艘船。如果你不了解这艘船，那么你还不了解美国。一次改变世界的航行，感动过一个国家的文字。

原文地址：http://www.qianchusai.com/revisionist-70.html