inappropriately-60

英文词组

1.开始画一根粗的,

比较长的曲线，类似于一条水平线，但是仍然有一点弧度的曲线。线条的边缘要稍微向内弯曲,左端更明显些。

Fist,

draw

thick

long

curved

line,

close

to

horizontal

line

with

little

curve.

Two

ends

of

the

line

should

bend

down

little

bit,

especially,

the

left

side

should

be

more

so.

2.轻轻画两条对角辅助线,以助于定义下眼框,辅助线从上眼框的两边出发，彼此几乎成垂直。不要画得太斜或太平直了,否则眼睛的尺寸就不那么准确了。画出眼睛的下眼框线,通过辅助线帮助你确定其位置。

Draw

two

guiding

lines,

which

cross

with

each

other

with

an

almost

right

angle,

to

help

the

position

the

lower

eyelid.

The

two

lines

start

with

the

two

ends

of

the

line

we

draw

in

the

first

part.

These

two

guiding

lines

are

almost

at

right

angle

toward

each

other.

However,

don’t

draw

too

steep

or

too

flat.

Otherwise

the

proportion

of

the

eye

will

not

be

accurate.

Then,

draw

the

lower

line

of

the

eyelid.

Get

the

right

position

using

the

guiding

lines.

3.擦掉辅助线并画出虹膜。虹膜是一个完美的圆形,。

但一部分会被眼皮遮住。眼球别画太小，至少要能看见完整的物体。(除非要表达强烈的情绪。

Erase

the

guiding

lines

and

draw

the

pupil.

The

pupil

should

be

beautiful

round

shape,

with

part

of

it

covered

by

eyelids.

The

eyeball

should

be

too

small.

At

least

the

whole

object

should

be

visible.

(Unless

it

is

for

very

strong

expression.)

4.男性人物的双眼同样是光彩熠熠的，不过一般高光的区域没那么大与明显而已。在眼珠的左边缘画一个椭圆形,右角画一个尖形作为高光区。

The

eyes

for

male

character

should

also

be

shining

and

bright.

But,

the

area

of

the

high

light

is

not

so

big

and

obvious.

Draw

an

oval

at

the

left

side

of

the

eyeball

and

sharp

pointed

shape

at

the

right

side

as

high

light.

5.画好瞳孔、亮光及较深的阴影,特别是如果人物有一双颜色很暗的眼睛。再画双眼皮和睫毛。男性人物的眉毛一般都较黑,较粗,所以记得别画成细细的柳叶眉了。这个可不难,没错吧?^_^。

用不着担心眼睛看起来太女性化，其实往往很难讲清哪些眼睛一定属于男人哪些一定得属于女性(眼睛毕竟不是区分性别的标志)。某些风格的眼睛也能男女通用。

Refine

the

pupil,

high

light,

and

shade,

especially

if

the

character

has

dark

colored

eyes.

Then,

draw

the

eyelids

and

eyelash.

Male

characters

usually

have

darker

and

thicker

eyebrows.

So

be

sure

not

drawing

very

fine

"willow

leaf

eyebrows".

This

is

not

so

difficult,

is

it?

Don't

worry

the

eyes

have

feminine

look.

Actually,

it

is

difficult

to

tell

the

eyes

from

men's

of

women's.

(After

all

the

eyes

are

not

parts

of

the

features

of

sex.)

Some

kinds

of

eyes

can

be

either

men's

or

women's.

6.

纤细、狭长类的眼睛常常(当然也不是绝对)和那些比较黑暗、深沉的人物联系在一起。

坏人一般都长着较狭窄的眼睛，不过也别把所有长这种眼睛的角色都当成敌人。要画这种风格的眼睛,先画一条长的曲线，注意曲线左端要比右边斜。

Long

and

thin

eyes

are

usually

(but

not

absolutely)

associated

with

dark

and

deep-minded

characters.

Bad

guys

usually

have

relatively

long

and

narrow

eyes.

But

don't

always

think

the

characters

whoever

have

such

eyes

are

bad

guys.

To

draw

this

kind

of

eyes,

you

have

to

draw

long

curved

line

first.

Be

aware

that

the

left

end

of

the

curve

should

be

more

slanted

the

right

side.

7.接着,从上眼框的两边出发画两条对角辅助线,其角度和教程的前三篇讲的有些不同:左边一条要比右边一条平很多。参考辅助线画出眼睛的下面部分，它应该是弯曲的,并非一条直线,所以整个眼睛象一个拉长了的尖的椭圆形。

Then,

from

the

two

ends

of

the

eye,

draw

two

guiding

lines

that

cross

each

other.

The

angle

between

them

should

be

bit

different

from

the

previous

three

chapters.

The

left

line

should

be

much

more

flat

than

the

right

one.

Using

the

guiding

lines,

draw

the

parts

below

the

eyelid.

The

lines

should

be

curved,

cannot

be

straight

line.

So

that

the

whole

eye

is

an

elongated

oval

with

two

sharp

tips.

8.擦掉辅助线画好虹膜。虹膜应该被上眼皮复盖，否则,虹膜就是一个完美的圆形。把眼睛右角的线颜色加浓。

Erase

the

guiding

lines

and

finish

the

iris.

The

iris

should

be

covered

by

the

upper

eyelid.

Otherwise

the

pupil

would

be

perfect

round.

Then,

darken

the

lines

at

the

right

corner

of

the

eye.

9.画出高光，和眼睛上面的双眼皮。

Draw

the

high

light

and

draw

the

double-folded

upper

eyelid.

10.加上瞳孔并在虹膜上画好阴影，再添上眉毛后，这只眼睛就画完了。最后把线条处理平滑、加暗就搞定了。^_^。

Add

the

pupil

to

the

eye

and

draw

the

shade

on

the

iris.

After

adding

eyebrows

the

drawing

of

the

eye

is

finished.

Finally,

smooth

the

lines

and

darken

certain

areas

to

finalize

this

eye.

11.画过了右眼后,或你也会想再画一下左眼。你所需要做的就是把原来那只眼睛画一个精确的镜像图。但是,摆放第二只眼睛的位置需要些技巧。动画中的眼睛,。

无论什么风格,双眼总是相距一只眼睛的长度。其间距可能会或大或小，不过用单只眼睛的长度来测量是较好的方式(就是常说三亭五眼)。

After

drawing

the

right

eye,

perhaps,

you

would

like

to

draw

left

eye.

All

what

you

have

to

do

is

draw

an

accurate

mirror

image

of

the

right

eye.

However,

it

takes

skills

to

place

the

second

eye.

In

cartoons,

the

distance

between

pair

of

eyes

is

always

the

length

of

an

eye.

It

might

be

shorter

or

longer,

but

it

is

better

way

to

gauge

the

distance.

12.可能你不会总画人物脸部的正面,所以应该了解在不同的角度要如何排列眼睛的位置。在《常规面部画法自学指导》的“头部”

内容中，你会看到如何通过曲线作辅助线来定义眼睛摆放的位置。初学时都用画辅助线的方法以助于确定眼睛的位置,直到自己真正熟练后便不必如此了--你不会希望眼睛会偏离中心吧。注意左图中,右边的眼睛比左边的小很多也平得多，对，因为它离你较远些。

Maybe,

you

will

not

draw

the

front

side

of

faces

only.

So,

it

is

necessary

to

arrange

the

positions

of

eyes

from

different

angles.

As

described

in

the

book

"Guides

to

Techniques

of

Drawing

Common

Faces

for

Self

Teaching",

you

will

see

how

to

use

curved

guiding

lines

to

position

the

eyes.

For

beginners,

it

is

common

to

use

guiding

lines

to

help

position

the

eyes.

When

you

are

skilled,

you

don't

have

to

do

so.

You

would

not

put

eyes

away

from

the

center,

Right?

Pay

attention

to

the

left

picture.

The

right

eye

is

much

smaller

and

flatter

than

the

left

one,

yes,

because

is

further

away

from

you.

13.这一幅也非常相似--除了头是往另一个方向仰起的。在此图中，左边的眼睛比右边的小，但双眼仍然是顺着脸部的曲线。如果两只眼睛的位置摆得不适当，那看起来会很糟糕的,所以--哼哼，小心点!。

This

drawing

is

very

similar,

except

that

the

head

is

raised

up

toward

the

other

direction.

In

this

drawing,

the

left

eye

is

smaller

than

the

right

one,

but

the

two

eyes

go

along

with

the

curves

of

the

face.

If

the

two

eyes

are

inappropriately。

positioned,

it

will

look

terrible.

So,

er-hen,

be

careful!

全文翻译

hop the twig (或 stick) (Brit. informal)depart suddenly or die (英，非正式)突然离开（或死亡）

hop in (或 out) (informal)get into (or out of) a car (非正式)跳入（或出）汽车 。

break step

stop walking or marching in step with others 。

停止齐步走

fall into step 。

change the way one is walking so that one is walking in step with another person 。

调整步伐，齐步行进

in (或 out of) step 。

putting (or not putting) one's feet forward alternately in the same rhythm as the people one is walking, marching, or dancing with 。

（不与他人一起）走齐步（或合拍跳舞）

■(figurative)conforming (or not conforming) to what others are doing or thinking 。

(喻)（不）一致，（不）协调 。

the party is clearly out of step with voters. 。

很明显，那个党派与投票人不协调。

■(Physics)(of two or more oscillations or other cyclic phenomena) having (or not having) the same frequency and always in the same phase 。

(物理)（两个或多个振动或别的循环现象）（不）同步 。

follow (或 tread) in someone's steps 。

do as someone else did, especially in making a journey or following a career 。

（尤指旅行或事业上）踏 着…的脚步走；效 法…的样子，步…的后尘 。

keep step

remain walking, marching, or dancing in step 。

齐步前进；合拍跳舞

mind (或 watch) one's step 。

used as a warning to someone to walk or act carefully 。

走路小心（用作警告）

one step ahead 。

managing to avoid competition or danger from someone or something 。

尽量避免同…的竞争；设法避开危险 。

I try to keep one step ahead of the rest of the staff. 。

我尽量避免同其他工作人员的竞争。

step by step

so as to progress gradually and carefully from one stage to the next 。

逐步地

I'll explain it to you step by step. 。

我会一步步地解释给你听。

[as modifier]a step-by-step guide. 。

渐进指南。

step into the breach 。

见 breach

step into someone's shoes 。

take control of a task or job from another person 。

接替…的职位（或位置）

step on it (或 step on the gas) 。

(informal)go faster, typically in a motor vehicle 。

(非正式)赶快；加快车速，踩油门 。

step on someone's toes 。

见tread 条 tread on someone's toes 。

step out of line 。

behave inappropriately or disobediently 。

偏离常规地做，不合要求地做 。

继承用法

step aside

another way of saying step down below 。

见下面 step down 。

step back

mentally withdraw from a situation in order to consider it objectively 。

退一步以便更客观地思考

step down

withdraw or resign from an important position or office 。

下台，退出；辞职

Mr Krenz stepped down as party leader a week ago. 。

克伦茨先生一星期以前从党魁的位置上退了下来。

step something down 。

decrease voltage by using a transformer 。

（用变压器）降低电压

step forward

offer one's help or services 。

提供帮助（或服务）

a company has stepped forward to sponsor the team. 。

一家公司已经提出要为这个队提供赞助。

step in

become involved in a difficult or problematic situation, especially in order to help or prevent something from happening 。

插手帮助（或干预）

■act as a substitute for someone 。

代替，顶替

Lucy stepped in at very short notice to take Joan's place. 。

露西在接到通知后很短的时间内就接替了琼的位置。

step out

leave a room or building, typically for a short time 。

暂时离开，暂时走开

(N. Amer. informal)go out with 。

(北美，非正式)与…外出娱乐，与…外出参加社交活动 。

he was stepping out with a redheaded waitress. 。

他与一个红头发的女服务员一起外出参加聚会。

walk with long or vigorous steps 。

大步走；健步走

she enjoyed the outing, stepping out manfully. 。

她喜欢郊游，昂首阔步向前走。

step out on

(US informal)be sexually unfaithful to 。

(美，非正式)（性关系方面）对…不忠 。

step something up 。

increase the amount, speed, or intensity of something 。

增加…的量度（或速度、强度）

police decided to step up security plans for the match. 。

警察决定为比赛加强安全保障。

■increase voltage using a transformer 。

（用变压器）增加电压

be jumping up and down 。

(informal)be very angry, upset, or excited 。

(非正式)恼怒的，愤怒的，兴奋的 。

get (或 have) the jump on someone 。

(informal, chiefly N. Amer.)get (or have) an advantage over someone as a result of one's prompt action 。

(非正式，主北美)抢在…之前，比…占先 。

jump bail

见 bail

jump someone's bones 。

(N. Amer. vulgar slang)have sexual intercourse with someone 。

(北美，粗俚)与某人发生性关系 。

jump down someone's throat 。

(informal)respond to what someone has said in a sudden and angrily critical way 。

(非正式)（突然愤怒地）回应某人的言论 。

jump for joy

be ecstatically happy 。

欣喜若狂

I'm not exactly jumping for joy at the prospect. 。

我对前景并不欣喜若狂。

jump the gun

见 gun

jump into bed with 。

(informal)engage readily in sexual intercourse with 。

(非正式)与…发生性关系

jump on the bandwagon 。

见 bandwagon

jump out of one's skin 。

(informal)be extremely startled 。

(非正式)大吃一惊，吓得魂灵出窍 。

jump the queue (或 美 。

push into a queue of people in order to be served or dealt with before one's turn 。

插队，不按顺序排队等候

■(figurative)take unfair precedence over others 。

(喻)（不正当地）抢先，抢在别人之前 。

the old boy networks were one way of jumping the promotion queue. 。

利用校友关系网是一个抢在别人之前获得提升的途径。

jump the rails (或 track) 。

(of a train) become dislodged from the track 。

（火车）出轨

jump rope

(N. Amer.)skip using a rope 。

(北美)跳绳

jump the shark 。

(US informal)(of a television series or film) reach a point when far-fetched events are included merely for the sake of novelty, indicative of a decline in quality 。

(美，非正式)（电视系列剧，电影）为求新奇而加入牵强情节（显示质量的下降）；哗众取宠 。

jump ship

(of a sailor) leave the ship on which one is serving without having obtained permission to do so 。

（水手）未经允许离船，擅自离船 。

he jumped ship in Cape Town. 。

他在开普敦未经允许就离开了船只。

three producers jumped ship two weeks after the show's debut. 。

三位制片人在首映式两星期后不辞而别了。

jump through hoops 。

go through an elaborate or complicated procedure in order to achieve an objective 。

经受艰苦的磨炼；赴汤蹈火

jump (或 leap) to conclusions (或 the conclusion) 。

form an opinion hastily, before one has learned or considered all the facts 。

草率下结论

jump to it!

(informal)used to exhort someone to prompt or immediate action 。

(非正式)（催促某人）赶快 。

one jump ahead 。

one step or stage ahead of someone else and so having the advantage over them 。

领先一步

the Americans were one jump ahead of the British in this. 。

美国人在这方面比英国人领先一步。

jump at

accept (an opportunity or offer) with great eagerness 。

迫不及待地接受，欣然接受（机会或提议）

I'd jump at the chance of a career in football. 。

我会迫不及待地抓住足球事业上的机遇。

jump on

(informal)attack or take hold of (someone) suddenly 。

(非正式)突袭；猛扑（某人）

■criticize (someone) suddenly and severely 。

突然激烈地抨击（某人）

■seize on (something) eagerly; give sudden (typically critical) attention to 。

急切地抓住（某物）；突然（尤指挑剔地）注意到 。

the paper jumped on the inconsistencies of his stories. 。

报纸抓住了他讲述中的自相矛盾。

jump out

have a strong visual or mental impact; be very striking 。

视觉（或精神）上影响强烈的，令人眼花缭乱；引人注目的，醒目的，突出的 。

advertising posters that really jump out at you. 。

广告海报真是惹人眼花缭乱。

习惯用语

all of a jump 。

心惊胆战地

at a full jump 。

[美]全速地

at one jump

立刻, 一下子

be for the high jump 。

[口]一定要受处罚

be jumped into doing sth. 。

被骗去做某事

from the jump 。

[口]从一开始

get the jump on 。

对...占优先地位, 抢在...之前行动 。

have the jump on 。

对...占优先地位, 抢在...之前行动 。

give sb. a jump 。

[口]使某人吓一跳

give sb. the jumps 。

[口]使人忐忑不安

keep the enemy on the jump 。

使敌人疲于奔命

on the jump

在忙碌中, 跑来跑去

upon the jump 。

在忙碌中, 跑来跑去

take a running jump 。

跑着跳过去

[俚](=take a running jump at yourself)滚开; 你真胡涂 。

jump all over 。

[口]叱责

jump at

抢着或欣然接受

jump off

【军】开始(进攻); (骑马在越障比赛中)进行决赛 。

jump on

猛扑; 叱责

jump upon

猛扑; 叱责

jump sb. out

叱责某人

J-to it.

[俚]赶快! 立即行动!

jump up

突然起立

特殊用法

backward jump 。

向后跃步

belly roll jump 。

俯卧式跳高

broad jump

跳远

center jump

【气】中心跳跃

conditional jump 。

【计】条件转移, 条件跳变 。

crouched jump 。

抱膝跳水

discontinuous jump 。

不连续转移

distance jump 。

跳远

三级跳远

double half loop jump 。

异足后外结环两周跳

double Salchow jump 。

后内结环两周跳

electric-field jump 。

电场跃升

electron jump 。

电子跃迁

endodermis jump 。

内皮层跃升

energy jump

能量突变

field jump

撑杖跳过障碍

final jump

最后一次试跳

finite jumps

非微量的跳跃

flip jump

后内点冰一周跳

forward jump

同脚变刃的前进跳跃

frame-to-frame jump 。

帧跳动

free jump

不用支撑的跳过器械

frequency jump 。

频率跃变

frog jump

蛙跳

get the jump

冲向对方队员

half loop jump 。

异足后外结环一周跳

half-turn broken jump 。

转体半周分腿跳跃

half-turn straight jump 。

转体半周同脚跳跃(用于“3”字、括弧、内钩手、外钩手跳) 。

height of hydraulic jump 。

水跃高度

hollow jump

挺身跳, 直体跳

hydraulic jump 。

【力】水跃

imitation jump 。

模仿性滑跳

Japanese jump 。

日本式跳跃

kangaroo jump 。

袋鼠跳

long jump

跳远

mode jump

【电子】振荡模跳变

oblique jump

斜线跳跃

obstacle jump 。

障碍跳跃

oscillating hydraulic jump 。

振动水跃

oven jump

炉烤持水增重(面粉烤成面包后增加的水分重量) 。

partner-assisted jump 。

借力跳

pole jump

撑杆跳高

pole vault jump 。

撑杆式跳跃

pressure jump 。

压力突变, 压力跃变

phase jump

相位跃变, 相位跳变

potential jump 。

电位突变

prompt jump of reactivity 。

(核子)反应性瞬发跳变

quantum jump

量子跃迁, 量子性跳变

random jump

随机跳动, 不规则跳动

return jump

【自】返回跳转

running jump

跑跳步

safe jump

有效试跳

Salchow jump

后内结环一周

sargent jump

原地跳起

scissors jump 。

剪式跳高

somersault long jump 。

空翻跳远

space jump

间隔转移

spark jump

发火花

split jump

后内点冰开脚半周跳

split Lutz jump 。

后外钩点冰开脚一周跳

steady hydraulic jump 。

【力】定常水跃

straddle jump 。

俯卧式跳高

strong hydraulic jump 。

强水跃

surface potential jump 。

表面电势陡变, 表面电位陡变 。

three jump

前外“3”字跳

toe loop jump 。

后外点冰结环一周跳

toe split loop jump 。

后外点冰开脚一周跳

toeless Lutz jump 。

钩手不点冰一周跳

trial jump

试跳

trick jump

掩护跳起, 晃跳

triple jump

三级跳远

triple flip jump 。

后内点冰三周跳

triple one-foot Lutz jump 。

外钩点冰同脚三周跳

unconditional jump 。

无条件转移;【自】无条件跳转 。

undular hydraulic jump 。

【力】波形水跃

velocity jump 。

速度突跃

voltage jump

电压跳变

Walley jump

后内钩不点冰一周跳

Waltz jump

前外“3”字跳

weak hydraulic jump 。

【力】弱水跃

谁有2008年12月份四级快速阅读That’s enough, kids这篇文章的全文翻译

In corporate purchasing, competitive scrutiny is typically limited to suppliers of items that are directly related to end products. 在公司采购中，竞争性的仔细检查一般仅限于与最终产品有关的项目供应商。With “indirect” purchases (such as computers, advertising, and legal services), which are not directly related to production, corporations often favor “supplier partnerships” (arrangements in which the purchaser forgoes the right to pursue alternative suppliers), which can inappropriately shelter suppliers from rigorous competitive scrutiny that might afford the purchaser economic leverage. 就“间接”采购来说（比如计算机、广告、和法律服务等），它们和生产没有直接关系，公司往往喜欢“供应商伙伴关系”（买方放弃寻找可选供货商的权利的安排），这会不适当地让供应商逃避严格的竞争性仔细检查，而这本来可给予买方以经济的杠杆。There are two independent variables—availability of alternatives and ease of changing suppliers—that companies should use to evaluate the feasibility of subjecting suppliers of indirect purchases to competitive scrutiny. 有两个独立的变量，公司应该用来评估使间接采购的供应商接受竞争性仔细的可行性，它们是：可选对象的可得性，以及更换供应商的难易。This can create four possible situations. 这会产生四种可能的情况。

In Type 1 situations, there are many alternatives and change is relatively easy. Open pursuit of alternatives—by frequent competitive bidding, if possible—will likely yield the best results.第一种情况，有很多可选对象，且更换比较容易。如果可能的话，通过频繁的竞争性招标，公开的寻找可选对象，这很可能产生最好的结果。 In Type 2 situations, where there are many alternatives but change is difficult—as for providers of employee health-care benefits—it is important to continuously test the market and use the results to secure concessions from existing suppliers. 第二种情况，有很多可选对象，但更换比较难，就员工健康保健效益的提供者来说，继续测试市场，并利用这些结果从现有供应商那里确保优惠就很重要。Alternatives provide a credible threat to suppliers, even if the ability to switch is constrained. 可选对象为供应商提供了实质性的威胁，尽管能否更换受到一定的限制。In Type 3 situations, there are few alternatives, but the ability to switch without difficulty creates a threat that companies can use to negotiate concessions from existing suppliers.第三种情况，可选对象不多，但更换没有困难，这就造成一种威胁，公司可以利用这一威胁与现有供应商谈判，从他们那里获得优惠。 In Type 4 situations, where there are few alternatives and change is difficult, partnerships may be unavoidable.第四种情况，可选对象不多，更换也难，那就不可避免采用伙伴关系了。

帮帮翻译成中文，谢谢大家，

That’s enough, kids。

It was a lovely day at the park and Stella Bianchi was enjoying the sunshine with her two children when a young boy, aged about four, approached her two-year-old son and pushed him to the ground.。

“I’d watched him for a little while and my son was the fourth or fifth child he’d shoved,” she says.” I went over to them, picked up my son, turned to the boy and said, firmly, ’No, we don’t push,” What happened next was unexpected.。

“The boy’s mother ran toward me from across the park,” Stella says,” I thought she was coming over to apologize, but instead she started shouting at me for disciplining her child, All I did was let him know his behavior was unacceptable. Was I supposed to sit back while her kid did whatever he wanted, hurting other children in the process?”

Getting your own children to play nice is difficult enough. Dealing with other people’s children has become a minefield.。

In my house, jumping on the sofa is not allowed. In my sister’s house it’s encouraged. For her, it’s about kids being kids:”If you can’t do it at three, when can you do it?”

Each of these philosophies is valid and, it has to be said, my son loves visiting his aunt’s house. But I find myself saying “no” a lot when her kids are over at mine. That’s OK between sisters but becomes dangerous territory when you’re talking to the children of friends or acquaintances.。

“Kids aren’t all raised the same,” agrees Professor Naomi White of Monash University.” But there is still an idea that they’re the property of the parent. We see our children as an extension of ourselves, so if you’re saying that my child is behaving inappropriately, then that’s somehow a criticism of me.”

In those circumstances, it’s difficult to know whether to approach the child directly or the parent first. There are two schools of thought.。

“I’d go to the child first,” says Andrew Fuller, author of Tricky Kids. Usually a quiet reminder that ’we don’t do that here’ is enough. Kids nave finely tuned antennae (直觉) for how to behave in different settings.”

He points out bringing it up with the parent first may make them feel neglectful, which could cause problems. Of course, approaching the child first can bring its own headaches, too.。

This is why White recommends that you approach the parents first. Raise your concerns with the parents if they’re there and ask them to deal with it,” she says. 。

Asked how to approach a parent in this situation, psychologist Meredith Fuller answers:”Explain your needs as well as stressing the importance of the friendship. Preface your remarks with something like: ’I know you’ll think I’m silly but in my house I don’t want…’”

When it comes to situations where you’re caring for another child, white is straightforward: “common sense must prevail. If things don’t go well, then have a chat.”

There’re a couple of new grey areas. Physical punishment, once accepted from any adult, is no longer appropriate. “A new set of considerations has come to the fore as part of the debate about how we handle children.”

For Andrew Fuller, the child-centric nature of our society has affected everyone:” The rules are different now from when today’s parents were growing up,” he says, “Adults are scared of saying: ’don’t swear’, or asking a child to stand up on a bus. They’re worried that there will be conflict if they point these things out – either from older children, or their parents.”

He sees it as a loss of the sense of common public good and public courtesy (礼貌), and says that adults suffer form it as much as child.。

Meredith Fuller agrees: “A code of conduct is hard to create when you’re living in a world in which everyone is exhausted from overwork and lack of sleep, and a world in which nice people are perceived to finish last.”

“it’s about what I’m doing and what I need,” Andrew Fuller says. ”the days when a kid came home from school and said, “I got into trouble”. And dad said, ‘you probably deserved it’. Are over. Now the parents are charging up to the school to have a go at teachers.”

This jumping to our children’s defense is part of what fuels the “walking on eggshells” feeling that surrounds our dealings with other people’s children. You know that if you remonstrate(劝诫) with the child, you’re going to have to deal with the parent. it’s admirable to be protective of our kids, but is it good?。

“Children have to learn to negotiate the world on their own, within reasonable boundaries,” White says. “I suspect that it’s only certain sectors of the population doing the running to the school –better –educated parents are probably more likely to be too involved.”

White believes our notions of a more child-centred, it’s a way of talking about treating our children like commodities(商品). We’re centred on them but in ways that reflect positively on us. We treat them as objects whose appearance and achievements are something we can be proud of, rather than serve the best interests of the children.”

One way over-worked, under-resourced parents show commitment to their children is to leap to their defence. Back at the park, Bianchi’s intervention(干预) on her son’s behalf ended in an undignified exchange of insulting words with the other boy’s mother.。

As Bianchi approached the park bench where she’d been sitting, other mums came up to her and congratulated her on taking a stand. “Apparently the boy had a longstanding reputation for bad behaviour and his mum for even worse behaviour if he was challenged.”

Andrew Fuller doesn’t believe that we should be afraid of dealing with other people’s kids. “look at kids that aren’t your own as a potential minefield,” he says. He recommends that we don’t stay silent over inappropriate behaviour, particularly with regular visitors.。

那就够了，孩子

这是一个可爱的一天在公园和斯特拉比安奇享受阳光和她的2个孩子时，一个年轻的男孩，年龄四岁左右，接近她两岁的儿子，将他推到地上。

“我看了他一会儿，我的儿子是第四个或第五个孩子，他推了，”她说。”我走过去，拿起我的儿子，转身对男孩说，牢固，不，我们不推，“接下来发生了什么意外。

“男孩的母亲向我跑过公园，”斯特拉说，“我以为她是来道歉，但她却对我大喊大叫管教自己的孩子，我做的一切是为了让他知道他的行为是不可接受的。我是应该坐在她的孩子，他为所欲为，伤害其他儿童的过程中？“

让自己的孩子玩好难。处理与其他人的孩子已经成为一个雷区。

在我的房子里，跳上沙发是不允许的。在我姐姐的房子，它的鼓励。对她来说，这是对孩子的孩子：“如果你不能在三点，当你能做吗？“

所有这些理念是有效的，它必须说，我的儿子喜欢他的姑妈家。但我发现自己说“不”了很多的时候，她的孩子们是在我的。说的好姐妹之间而成为危险的领土时，你说话的朋友或熟人的孩子。

“孩子不是所有提出的一样，”内奥米教授白色莫纳什大学。”但仍有一个想法，他们的父母的财产。我们看到了我们的孩子为自己的延伸，所以如果你说我的孩子行为不当，那是在批评我。”

在这些情况下，很难知道是否接近孩子的父母第一次直接或。有两派观点。

“我要先去接孩子，说：”安得烈，作者巧妙的孩子。通常是一个安静的提醒，我们不做，这就足够了。孩子天真的微调天线（直觉）如何表现在不同的设置。”

他指出，使其与母公司首先会让他们觉得疏忽，可能会引起问题。当然，接近孩子第一次可以带自己的头痛，太。

这就是为什么白色建议你父母首先。提高您的关注与父母如果他们，要求他们解决它，”她说。

问如何处理父母在这种情况下，心理学家梅瑞狄斯答道：“说明你的需要以及强调友谊的重要性。序言的评论是：“我知道你会觉得我很傻，但我的房子，我不想……”

当它来的情况下，你要照顾一个孩子，白色是直截了当：“必须占上风。如果事情不顺利，有一个聊天。”

有几个新的灰色地带。体罚，一旦接受任何成人，不再是合适的。“一套新的考虑，已脱颖而出成为辩论的一部分，关于我们如何处理儿童。”

为安得烈的儿童为中心的性质，我们的社会影响了每个人：“规则是不同的，从当今天的父母的成长，”他说，“人是害怕说：“不要发誓'，或让孩子站在公交车上。他们担心会有冲突，如果他们点出这些东西–无论从年龄较大的儿童，或他们的父母。”

他认为这是一个失去了意义上的共同的公益性和公共礼仪（礼貌），并说，成年人患为孩子。

梅瑞狄斯认为：“行为守则很难创造当你生活在一个世界中，每个人都是劳累过度、睡眠不足，和一个世界中，好人难出头。”

“这是我在做什么，我需要什么，”安得烈说。“当一个孩子从学校回来说，“我有麻烦了”。和爸爸说，“你大概是罪有应得。结束了。现在父母充电到学校去的有教师。”

这一跳到孩子们的防御是什么的一部分燃料“如履薄冰”的感觉围绕着我们与其他人的孩子。你知道，如果你反对（劝诫）的孩子，你将不得不应对的母公司。它的令人钦佩的是保护我们的孩子，但它好吗？

“孩子们必须学会谈判的世界在他们自己的，在合理的界限，“白说。“我怀疑这只是一部分的人会为学校的运作––更好教育的父母可能会参与。”

白相信我们的观念，更以孩子为中心，这是一个说话的方式对待我们的孩子喜欢的商品（商品）。我们集中在他们的方式，积极反映我们。我们把他们当作物体的外观和成就是我们可以引以自豪的事，而不是为孩子们的最佳利益。”

INTRODUCTION

Much progress has been made in our understanding of the role of nutritional factors in the pathogenesis of liver disease and its treatment. The basic concept has been that some nutrients are essential because they cannot be synthesized endogenously in the mammalian body and therefore must be provided exogenously in the diet. A classic example is that of the amino acids, 9 of which are essential and therefore are mandatory constituents of any diet. An important one is methionine. Its requirements have been established and its key role in a score of vital functions has been well chartered, as reviewed in the introduction to this symposium (1) and elsewhere (2). In addition, to this traditional concept, a new approach has emerged that has changed the use of some of the essential nutrients in pathologic conditions. Indeed, many of these nutrients, including methionine, must first be activated in the liver or in other tissues before they can exert their key functions. This activating process, however, is altered by liver disease and, as a consequence, nutritional requirements change. For instance, methionine has to be converted to S-adenosyl-L-methionine (SAMe) before it can act as the main cellular methyl donor (Figure 1). This function of SAMe is important for the metabolism of nucleic acids and for the structure and function of membranes and many other cellular constituents. These are often disturbed in various liver diseases but cannot be restored by the simple administration of methionine. Indeed, experimentally, it has been shown that even a 7-fold increase in the normal dietary methionine content failed to significantly alter hepatic SAMe (3). This is exacerbated when there is significant liver disease, which is commonly associated with impairment of the enzyme activating methionine to SAMe (4). Therefore, supplementation with methionine is useless in most such circumstances and may even result in toxicity because of its accumulation as a result of nonutilization. Indeed, elevated concentrations of circulating methionine in patients with liver disease have been reported (5–7), and excess methionine was shown to have toxic effects (3), including a decrease in hepatic ATP (8). Accordingly, one must bypass the enzyme deficiency due to liver disease and provide the product of the defective reaction, namely SAMe, which becomes crucial for the functioning of the cell under these pathologic conditions. Thus, SAMe then becomes the essential nutrient instead of methionine. It is a typical example of a "conditional essential amino acid" (9) and what is now also called a supernutrient, namely an activated nutrient that must be provided to meet the normal cellular requirements when its endogenous synthesis from a nutritional precursor becomes insufficient because of an impairment in the activation process secondary to a pathologic state. Because the essential supernutrient SAMe is key to many basic cellular functions, it is not surprising that its lack is associated with many pathologic manifestations of liver diseases and that these can be corrected by simply providing the missing supernutrient (10). 。

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FIGURE 1. . Lipid peroxidation and other adverse effects resulting from alcoholic liver disease and from free radical generation and acetaldehyde production by ethanol-induced microsomes and associated cytochrome P4502E1 (CYP2E1) up-regulation. Metabolic blocks caused by liver disease (a and b) or folate (c), vitamin B-12 (c), or vitamin B-6 (d) deficiencies result in corresponding depletions in S-adenosyl-L-methionine, phosphatidylcholine, and glutathione (GSH). New therapeutic approaches include the down-regulation of microsomal enzyme induction, 1, especially of CYP2E1; the trapping of free radicals with antioxidants, 2; the replenishment of S-adenosyl-L-methionine, 3; and the replenishment of phosphatidylcholine, 4. ADH, alcohol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.1). Reprinted with permission from reference 2. 。

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF SAMe ON BASIC MANIFESTATIONS OF LIVER DISEASE 。

Role of SAMe on oxidative stress。

As reviewed elsewhere (11), oxidative stress was shown to play a major pathogenic role in multiple disease states ranging from the hepatotoxicity of alcohol (and other xenobiotics) to the carcinogenicity of many compounds. The major natural defense mechanism against oxidative stress is reduced glutathione, which traps the excess of free radicals (Figure 1). Glutathione is a tripeptide, the rate-limiting amino acid being cysteine (12), and SAMe plays a fundamental role in the formation of cysteine. 。

Role of SAMe in transmethylation and transsulfuration reactions。

Another basic cellular activity of SAMe is its role as a methyl donor and enzyme activator in the transmethylation and transsulfuration reactions key to membrane structure and function. For example, SAMe is essential for the transport processes and signal transmission across membranes. One of the important consequences of the failure of these functions is insufficiency of bile formation, a key aspect of many diseases of the liver, resulting in a pathologic state called cholestasis. SAMe opposes successfully many of the cholestatic states, as reviewed elsewhere (13). Given either orally or parenterally, SAMe improves both the pruritus and the biochemical indexes of cholestasis, such as serum bilirubin, alkaline phosphatase (EC 3.1.3.1), and -glutamyltransferase (EC 2.3.2.2). It is noteworthy that in a prospective, multicenter, double-blind, placebo-controlled trial performed in 220 inpatients with chronic liver disease (chronic active hepatitis and cirrhosis, including primary biliary cirrhosis), serum markers of cholestasis and subjective symptoms (eg, pruritus and fatigue) significantly improved after SAMe treatment (14). Cholestasis is not only an important manifestation of various liver disorders, but it also may complicate physiologic states such as pregnancy. SAMe was shown to be a useful therapy for cholestasis during pregnancy (15) and for cholestasis that is sometimes associated with parenteral nutrition (16). 。

Role of SAMe in opposing fibrosis。

The leading cause of morbidity and mortality in all major liver diseases is an inappropriately excessive healing process with uncontrolled scarring or fibrosis culminating in cirrhosis. Indeed, fibrosis can be viewed as an initially beneficial scarring process that has escaped control and results ultimately in cirrhosis. SAMe was shown to be therapeutically useful in alleviating this process experimentally (17) and for improving the outcome clinically (18). 。

The most common liver disease for which SAMe has been shown to be useful therapeutically is alcoholic liver injury, which encompasses all the pathologic manifestations discussed above, namely a deficiency in the activation of methionine to SAMe, in the pathogenic role of oxidative stress and glutathione deficiency, in complications of cholestasis, and in the devastating consequences of excessive liver fibrosis (leading to cirrhosis). 。

SAMe AND THE PATHOGENESIS OF ALCOHOLIC LIVER INJURY 。

Alcohol causes liver disease through a variety of pathogenic mechanisms that were reviewed in detail elsewhere (19–21). The major mechanisms include interactions with nutrition and toxic manifestations through generation of oxidative stress and production of the toxic metabolite acetaldehyde. 。

Interactions of alcohol with nutrition。

In addition to its pharmacologic action, alcohol (ethanol) has a considerable energy content (7.1 kcal/g). Thus, its consumption may cause primary malnutrition by displacing other nutrients in the diet because of the high energy content of the alcoholic beverages or because of associated socioeconomic and medical disorders. Secondary malnutrition may result from either maldigestion or malabsorption of nutrients caused by gastrointestinal complications associated with alcoholism. Alcohol also promotes nutrient degradation or impaired activation (see below). Whereas it continues to be important to replenish nutritional deficiencies, it is crucial to recognize that, because of the alcohol-induced disease process, some nutritional requirements change. 。

Methionine and its utilization in liver diseases。

In rats, alcohol consumption is associated with impaired methionine conservation. Consequently, methionine supplementation has been proposed for the treatment of liver diseases, especially the alcoholic variety, but some difficulties have been encountered, which are reviewed in detail elsewhere (22). Indeed, fatty liver and cirrhosis were not prevented in baboons given liberal amounts of methionine and other lipotropes (23, 24), and excess methionine was shown in various studies to have some adverse effects (see above). Whereas in some patients with alcoholic liver disease, circulating methionine concentrations may be normal or even low (25), elevated concentrations have been reported in others (see above). Furthermore, there was a delay in the clearance of plasma methionine after its systemic administration to patients with liver damage (26). Similarly, the blood clearance of methionine after an oral load of this amino acid was slowed (27). Because about one-half of methionine is metabolized by the liver, the above observations suggest the impaired hepatic metabolism of this amino acid. Indeed, Duce et al (4) reported a decrease in SAMe-synthetase activity in cirrhotic livers. As a consequence, methionine supplementation may be ineffective in alcoholic liver disease and SAMe depletion ensues, as was verified in nonhuman primates after long-term ethanol consumption (28). Additional factors that contribute to the decrease in hepatic SAMe are increased glutathione utilization secondary to enhanced free radical and acetaldehyde generation by the induced microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system (see below). 。

Microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system and SAMe。

The microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system has been the subject of extensive research, and is reviewed in detail elsewhere (29, 30). With the use of Western blot technique with specific antibodies against cytochrome P4502E1 (CYP2E1), a 4-fold induction of CYP2E1 was found in liver biopsy samples from recently drinking subjects (31). CYP2E1 activates some xenobiotics (such as acetaminophen) to toxic metabolites (29). It also generates several species of active oxygen (Figures 2 and 3). Glutathione provides one of the cell’s fundamental mechanisms for the scavenging of toxic free radicals (Figure 1), but the generation of active oxygen species by CYP2E1 may overwhelm this antioxidant system with pathogenic consequences requiring new therapeutic approaches (32). Furthermore, acute ethanol administration also inhibits glutathione synthesis and produces an increased loss from the liver (33). Indeed, rats fed ethanol chronically have significantly increased rates of glutathione turnover (34). Such an increased glutathione turnover was also shown indirectly by an increase in -amino-N-butyrate (Figure 1), which has been shown in both nonhuman primates and in humans (35). A depletion in the steady state concentrations of hepatocellular glutathione, in synergy with other conditions, leads to hepatocellular necrosis and liver injury (36). Glutathione is selectively depleted in the mitochondria (37) and may contribute to the striking alcohol-induced alterations of that organelle. In addition, -tocopherol, the major antioxidant in the membranes, is depleted in patients with cirrhosis (38). This deficiency in the defense systems, coupled with increased oxygen and other free radical generation (by the ethanol-induced microsomes; see above) and with acetaldehyde production (see below), may contribute to liver damage not only via lipid peroxidation but also by enzyme inactivation (39). Replenishment of glutathione can be achieved in acute situations (such as acetaminophen poisoning) by administration of precursors of cysteine (one of the amino acids of glutathione), such as acetylcysteine, or in chronic conditions by SAMe (10, 28). Beneficial effects of SAMe on glutathione were also observed in humans (40, 41). Moreover, experimentally, the ethanol-induced increase in fluidity of mitochondrial membranes was prevented by SAMe but not by N-acetylcysteine supplementation (42). 。

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FIGURE 2. . Pathogenesis of hepatic, nutritional, and metabolic abnormalities after ethanol abuse. Malnutrition, whether primary or secondary, can be differentiated from metabolic changes or direct toxicity, resulting partly from redox changes mediated by alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH; EC 1.1.1.1) or effects secondary to microsomal induction, including increased acetaldehyde production. L-FABP, L-fatty acid binding protein; FA, fatty acid; GSH, glutathione; MEOS, microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system; 4A1, cytochrome P4504A1. Reprinted with permission from reference 2. 。

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FIGURE 3. . Physiologic and toxic roles of cytochrome P4502E1 (CYP2E1), the main cytochrome P450 of the microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system. Many endogenous and xenobiotic compounds are substrates for CYP2E1 and induce its activity through various mechanisms, resulting in an array of beneficial as well as harmful effects. Reprinted with permission from reference 30. 。

Toxicity of acetaldehyde。

Acetaldehyde, the product of all pathways of ethanol oxidation, is highly toxic (18) and is rapidly metabolized to acetate, mainly by a mitochondrial aldehyde dehydrogenase, the activity of which is significantly reduced by chronic ethanol consumption (43). The decreased capacity of mitochondria in alcoholfed subjects to oxidize acetaldehyde, associated with unaltered or even enhanced rates of ethanol oxidation (and therefore acetaldehyde generation because of the induction of the microsomal ethanol-oxidizing system; see above), results in an imbalance between the production and disposition of acetaldehyde. The latter causes the elevated acetaldehyde concentrations observed after chronic ethanol consumption in baboons (44) and humans (45). 。

Acetaldehyde’s toxicity is due, in part, to its capacity to form protein adducts, which results in antibody production, enzyme inactivation, and decreased DNA repair (19). Moreover, acetaldehyde promotes lipid peroxidation (Figure 1); one mechanism that promotes lipid peroxidation is glutathione depletion. The binding of acetaldehyde with cysteine, glutathione, or both (Figure 1) may contribute to a decrease in liver glutathione (46). Acetaldehyde adducts also promote collagen production because collagen synthesis by liver stellate cells is released from the feedback inhibition produced by the carboxy terminal propeptide of procollagen through adduct formation of acetaldehyde with the latter (47). Thus, acetaldehyde toxicity plays a fundamental role in alcohol-induced liver injury, and glutathione is a key defense mechanism by inactivating the free radicals generated by acetaldehyde and by binding to acetaldehyde itself (Figure 1). SAMe, in turn, serves as the main support for the maintenance of adequate glutathione concentrations. 。

BENEFICIAL EFFECTS OF SAMe IN ALCOHOLIC LIVER DISEASE 。

Experimental studies。

Although it has been claimed that the liver does not take up SAMe from the bloodstream, other results indicate its uptake by isolated hepatocytes; results in baboons (28) also clearly showed hepatic uptake of exogenous SAMe in vivo, associated with beneficial effects on liver function and structure. In these baboons, correction of the ethanol-induced hepatic SAMe depletion with oral SAMe administration (28) resulted in a corresponding attenuation of ethanol-induced liver injury, as shown by a less-striking glutathione depletion and lesser increases in plasma aspartate transaminase (EC 2.6.1.1). The number of alcohol-induced megamitochondria (documented by electron microscopy) was markedly reduced (28). The latter was associated with a lesser leakage of the mitochondrial enzyme glutamic dehydrogenase into the bloodstream. In rats, SAMe also decreased ethanol-induced fat accumulation (48). Thus, SAMe was shown to be useful for opposing the oxidative stress and the alcohol-induced liver injury. 。

Membrane alterations are common in alcoholic liver injury and are also associated with a decrease in phosphatidylcholine, the backbone of the membranes. One pathway for the maintenance and preservation of adequate phosphatidylcholine concentrations in the liver membranes is the methylation of phosphatidylethanolamine to phosphatidylcholine through the action of SAMe (Figure 1). This vital function is impaired in alcoholic liver disease because, under these conditions, the activity of phosphatidylethanolamine methyltransferase (EC 2.1.1.17) is depressed (4, 49). This deficiency is exacerbated if SAMe is depleted (Figure 1). These metabolic considerations may explain, at least in part, some of the beneficial effects of SAMe on alcohol-induced liver injury in baboons (28) through the restoration of some of the phosphatidylcholine production or through the positive effects of the supplementation with phosphatidylcholine (50), the depleted product of the reaction (Figure 1). 。

Clinical trial

A significant therapeutic success in alcoholic liver disease was achieved in a recent long-term randomized, placebo-controlled, double-blind, multicenter clinical trial of SAMe in patients with alcoholic liver cirrhosis in whom SAMe improved survival or delayed liver transplantation (18). 。

CONCLUSIONS

Liver disorders, including alcoholic liver disease, are associated with and result in part from impaired activation of methionine to SAMe or from alcohol-induced oxidative stress, which results in the increased utilization of SAMe, a key precursor of cysteine—the rate-limiting amino acid of the tripeptide glutathione. Depletion of SAMe, the main methylating agent of the liver, and associated liver pathology can be corrected by the administration of this safe, yet therapeutically effective nutrient.。

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