Balkan-90

俄气已停止向欧洲6国供应天然气，欧盟会怎么做？预算会损失多少？

第一：波兰精馏伏特加

酒精浓度：96%。

波兰精馏伏特加——Spirytus Rektyfikowany。它被西方人称之为“生命之水”是世界上已知的度数最高的酒。

第二：美国Everclear酒和Golden Grain金麦酒。

酒精浓度：95%。

Everclear是美国首类可以瓶装出售的95%的烈性酒，在年轻人中间比较受欢迎。

第三：苏格兰四次蒸馏威士忌Bruichladdich X4 Quadrupled Whiskey。

酒精浓度：92%。

Bruichladdich X4 Quadrupled Whiskey采用17世纪四次蒸馏工艺，是酒精度最高的单一麦芽威士忌。

第四：格林纳达朗姆酒River Antoine Royale Grenadian Rum。

酒精浓度：90%。

这种清澈的烈性朗姆酒采用流传几个世纪之久的罐式蒸馏法，通过缓慢蒸馏以最大限度保证酒的口感。它是从发酵的甘蔗汁蒸馏而来的。

扩展资料

其他烈酒

1、捷克共和国Hapsburg Gold Label Premium Reserve Absinthe。

酒精浓度：89.9%。

2、苏格兰伏特加Pincer Shanghai Strength。

酒精浓度：88.8%。

这种烈性伏特加含有如接骨木花和奶蓟等补肝的中药成分，一瓶酒能喝65杯而不是普通酒的26杯。

3、保加利亚巴尔干伏特加Balkan Vodka。

酒精浓度：88%。

这种无色无味的伏特加销往176个国家，在南美一些国家尤其受欢迎。

参考资料来源：人民网-世界上最恐怖的超级烈酒 中国白酒入选。

第九道门讲的到底是什么啊

并不会影响多久，因为俄国不管对任何方向的输气设备都是德国西门子的产品，如果合作破裂，俄国不出一年就卖不出天然气了，对于一个靠资源维生的国家来说比欧洲冬天烧个炉子更为难受。这不，不出半个月，俄国主动提起要恢复供气。

求希特勒的演讲稿原文！

影片讲述了书商科索受老主顾巴尔坎所雇只身一人来到欧洲，寻找一本能够召唤神灵、开启地狱之门的古书《第九道门》。可谁知他的旅程却充满了一连串的危险、暴力和谋杀。

迪安·科索是一个专门从事珍贵典籍交易的经纪人，他常为富有的藏书家们提供重要收藏线索。科索受雇于纽约百万富翁鲍里斯·巴尔坎，此人虽拥有大量的玄秘文献，但一直为《第九道门》这部珍奇宝典着迷。这本书据传说源于撒旦，十七世纪有人重新写成，世间仅存三本。

其中一本书的主人在自杀前几天把书卖给了巴尔坎。巴尔坎要科索不惜一切代价为他去寻找另外两本，据说，另两本中的一本由葡萄牙的法格斯所有，另一本被法国收藏家凯斯勒收藏，巴尔坎想要验证此书的真伪。

科索受命拜访莉娅娜·特尔弗，她是一个寡妇，正是她的丈夫死前把书买给了巴尔坎，她希望能把这书找回去。科索与朋友伯尼商议对策，可不久伯尼就突然死亡，这件事与巴尔坎手中那本书的一幅插图竟不谋而合。

经历了几桩命案后，科索终于明白，这部书中含有某个神秘咒语的重要线索，它会让人着魔，最终会使人为了寻找迷底而不择手段，无所不为。

扩展资料：

主要人物：

1、科索

迪安·科索是一个专门从事珍贵典籍交易的经纪人，他常为富有的藏书家们提供重要收藏线索。

2、巴尔坎

纽约百万富翁鲍里斯·巴尔坎，此人虽拥有大量的玄秘文献，但一直为《第九道门》这部珍奇宝典着迷，一直想召唤魔鬼。

3、莉娅娜·特尔弗

一个寡妇，银蛇会的教徒，崇拜魔鬼，正是她的丈夫死前把书买给了巴尔坎，她希望能把这书找回去。

谁能帮我写篇英文的介绍俄罗斯的作文？谢谢

你好， 征服欧洲原文

Mai letzten Jahres, die vielleicht verdient der deutschen Geschichte und der Erinnerung an den Krieg begann. Wir sind in ein paar Tagen, besiegt den Feind auf der Vorderseite, und dann öffnete der weltweit größte Auftakt zu einem Kampf der Vernichtung. Zusammenbruch von Frankreich, Belgien und den Niederlanden wurden gefangen genommen, die Reste des britischen Expeditionskorps Kraft wurde aus dem europäischen Kontinent, Soldaten ziehen einen Anhänger, verschwunden.。

19 Juli 1940, ich glaube, dass wir alle noch daran erinnern, Sie, ich, um die Ergebnisse weiter ausbauen. Drei Mal den Kongress zu überzeugen. Ich nutze die Gelegenheit dieses Treffens im Namen aller Zivilisten und Offiziere und Männer der Streitkräfte, um meinen Dank an eine brillante Ergebnisse bedeutet.。

Ich habe immer und immer wieder warten auf eine Gelegenheit, um die Herbeiführung des Friedens in der ganzen Welt. Vision und ein Gefühl ich nicht Sim wahr, meinen Frieden Vorschlag wurde missverstanden, der Feind des Friedens mit dem Gedanken, dass ich nicht anders aus feige schrumpfen. 7. Europa und den Vereinigten Staaten immer wieder zu verwechseln Militanten von der öffentlichen Meinung, sie wissen, gibt es keine Möglichkeit für den Sieg, sondern um ihnen einige Leute wie eine Seifenblase wird aufgeschlüsselt, wie eine neue Hoffnung. Dann wird der Druck der Öffentlichkeit, kombiniert mit Eintreten Zeitung, Kämpfer, die nie eine Verlockung für ihr Land den Kampf encaged Tiere.。

Ich warne sie, dass wir in dicht besiedelten Gebieten in der Nacht Explosion, Churchill warnte meine Inkompetenz als die Deutsche Mark. Die Geschichte der bekanntesten und Hobby-Strategen blutrünstige maniac, sondern auch, dass die deutsche Luftwaffe ist nicht gut zu erkennen in den letzten Monaten, das heißt, wir können nicht fliegen in der Nacht und beweisen Sie es? 9. Daher, Winston Churchill auf der schlechten alten Zeit betrügen mehrere Monate allein, das britische Volk glauben, dass die Royal Air Force - keine Hilfe mehr benötigen, andere -, können wir gewinnen den Krieg, sie "erfunden" eine Reihe von Mitteln und Methoden der zwingen uns zu Empire erliegen, werden sie haben, um die US-Luftwaffe bombardiert gnadenlos dicht besiedelten Gebieten, und die taktischen Hunger.。

Obwohl ich mich Warnung, sich wieder und wieder, ich will dieses einzigartige Luft, ich habe eine Reihe von Drei-Monats-Warnung sie. Doch diese Warnungen wurden praktisch sich taub wie Churchill. Seltsam Diese Person ist es egal, wie andere Menschen den Tod? Er nur die kulturellen und architektonischen?。

Beachten Sie, dass der Krieg ausbrach, Churchill ist sehr klar, dass er sollte allein Schlacht, auch die großen Städte des Vereinigten Königreichs zu einem Haufen von Schuttauch Kosten. So Er ist jetzt ein intensiviert.。

Ich kann Ihnen versichern, dass, wenn ich die Dauer der Zeit, wenn er uns eine Bombe und, wenn nötig, werde ich sie wieder 100 Bomben, aber immer noch nicht verstehen, dass ihm sein Verhalten zu bestrafen, das Volk Gottes waren. Er behauptete, dass er die Hoffnung nicht aufgeben, er selbst hat uns versichert, dass egal wie stark wir sind Bombardierung, das britische Volk wird Abschied zu seiner Rückkehr in die London Array.。

Voraussichtlich Abschied zu diesem Paar von Bildern ist eine verstärkte Churchills Entschlossenheit, Operationen, wir sind auch entschlossen, auf diese zu antworten, das heißt, wenn nötig, werden zu 100 Bomben habe, um ihm eine Bombe explodierte es ständig, bis das britische Volk aufgegeben Spieß seine Verbrechen und seine teuflischen enden.。

Diese täuschen, er hatte das deutsche Volk zu verraten mir, wenn sie nachweisen können, dass es nicht leiden, Lepra wird von einer Gruppe von betrunken crazy verrückt in der Sprache. Wegen seiner abnormen psychischen, bevor sie entscheidet, zu einer Bühne für die Balkan-Krieg.。

Die Idioten in den letzten fünf Jahren wurde in Europa wie verrückt überspringen entlang, in der Hoffnung zu finden, die Möglichkeit, Feuer. Es ist bedauerlich, dass er immer wieder festgestellt, dass die Länder der Vampire freigegeben wurden in ihrem Haus zu einem Brand.。

Er vergangenen Winter machen leere Versprechungen großen Lüge sich auf das amerikanische Volk glauben, dass mit dem Deutschen Reich in den letzten Monaten über den Krieg verloren, ist jetzt an der Schwelle des Todes, er weiß auch,so Er hat die erforderlicheneinen Krieg in Europa.。

Seine Pläne so früh wie im Herbst 1939 und Frühjahr 1940, gab es. Zu dieser Zeit, die Situation im Vereinigten Königreich, so dass er mobilisiert werden könnten, um etwa 100 Piloten. Allerdings, im Mai und Juni des vergangenen Jahres, wurden wir Zeugen einer plötzlichen und schweren Niederlage der Briten, so dass er den Plan abgebrochen. Allerdings, im Herbst des vergangenen Jahres, Churchill wollte dieses Problem zu lösen.。

Yijun Tanks und als Folge der Anti-Tank-Waffen einen eindeutigen Vorteil, die umgekehrte Situation in Nord-Afrika, Winston Churchill Ich glaube, das ist die beste Zeit, er kann eine Bühne für den Krieg in Griechenland aus Libyen wurde. Er befahl den Tanks und den Transport der Rest von Australien und Neuseeland vor allem durch die Zusammensetzung der restlichen Stärke der Infanterie-Division, denkt er, er könne jetzt Erreichung der Verschwörung, so kann er beginnen A Prairie Feuer auf dem Balkan Krieg.。

Daher ist dies Churchill, die in diesem Krieg die größten strategischen Fehler. Ich habe nicht die Absicht,britische Festung auf dem Balkan nach dem Sieg, sondern auch die erforderlichen Schritte. 20. Deutsch Gentleman der Trick ist, um eine enge, gesammelt und die notwendige Kraft zu knacken auf ihn. Deutschland hat nicht Sinn Feuer auf dem Balkan. Auf der anderen Seite haben wir eine faire Art und Weise, so weit wie möglich, im Hinblick auf die Beilegung des Streits mit Griechenland, natürlich sind diese Methoden auch im Einklang mit den Rechtsvorschriften in der Hoffnung, von Italien.。

Italienischen Führer nicht nur vereinbart, sondern auch die volle Unterstützung unserer Bemühungen um Frieden in Jugoslawien, im Einklang mit unserem Ziel der Unterzeichnung der bilateralen Abkommen. Schließlich wird die jugoslawische Regierung vereinbart, drei hegemonialen Konventionen, Jugoslawien, welche Pflichten haben keine negativen, solange genug für uns, Deshalb, am 26. März dieses Jahres haben wir in Wien, um sicherzustellen, dass Jugoslawien nicht in die Zukunft von außen, und garantiert den Frieden auf dem Balkan. Herren, Sie glauben nicht, dass ich mich von Tag zu verlassen, die schöne Stadt an der Donau war voll des Glücks, und zwar nicht nur, weil er die Kristallisation von acht Jahren der Außenpolitik, sondern auch, weil ich glaube, dass von diesem Moment an kann Deutschland nicht mehr an dem Balkan .。

Wir sind alle Nachrichten Junta wurde versteinerte, diese Nachricht ist eine Gruppe von Verrat wurde für den Kauf des Anti-Genehmigung Auftragnehmer, die auch in der britischen Premierministers Nachweis mit Spannung das erste Mal, dass er erkläre die ganze Good News das Vereinigte Königreich. P024. Herren, ich bin sicher, Sie werden verstehen, dass ich diesen mündlichen Verhandlung habe ich sofort bestellt den Angriff auf Jugoslawien. Reich ist es nicht möglich für ein paar Jahre, die Unterzeichnung der politischen Parteien in anderen Ländern und nützliche, aber plötzlich festgestellt, dass die Zerstörung von einseitig, und sie sind eine Beleidigung für unsere Botschafter des Deutschen Reiches, die begleitenden Beamten der militärischen Bedrohung, Körperverletzung die offizielle Residenz der Assistenten, sondern auch beschädigt Eigentum der Deutschen, das deutsche Volk die Häuser dem Erdboden gleichgemacht, und drohte mit der Missbrauch unzählige Deutschen.。

Gott weiß, ich bin ein friedliebender. Aber Gott sei Dank, es hat mir sind frei zur Verwendung der Mittel zur Verteidigung der Interessen der Bundesrepublik Deutschland. Ich bin sehr ruhig, die zum Zeitpunkt für die Bestimmung des Erdgeschosses. Weil ich weiß, dass ich auf meinem Wing Bulgarien unerschütterliche Loyalität gegenüber Loyalität zu Deutschland und Ungarn gespielt zu wissen, über diese Empörung.。

Das Ergebnis dieser Schlacht war eine besondere. Hard Belgrad durch die Elemente kann dazu führen, dass eine Handvoll der interkontinentalen scheint durch die Tatsache, dass wir sofort diese Gefahr zu beseitigen, gibt es Grund zur Beseitigung der Spannungen in Europa, eine Quelle von Schwierigkeiten.。

Wir haben die Stärkung des Schutzes der Donau dieser wichtigen Wasserstraße, um sich gegen Schäden an mehr Menschen, der Verkehr wurde eine völlig glatt.。

Neben einer entsprechenden Patch als Folge des Ausbruchs des Zweiten Weltkrieges und der Front gegen die deutschendiese Orte sind nicht für die Lust. Auf politischer Ebene sind wir nur in den Schutz des Friedens in der Region, und auf wirtschaftlicher Ebene, wie wir hoffen, um zu sehen, die Wiederherstellung der sozialen Ordnung, um die Produkt-und reibungslosen Fluss von Waren, der Nutzen aller.。

Allerdings, zusätzlich zu den höchsten Einsatz von der Messe, sie müssen auch die Herkunft, Geschichte und Wirtschaft.。

Ich kann Ihnen versichern, dass ich es einfach für unsere Zukunft, sondern auch ein gutes Maß an Vertrauen. Deutsch Reich und seine Verbündeten, die beide in Kraft, militärische, wirtschaftliche und moralische Aspekte insbesondere, als die Welt des guten zu Föderation. Deutsch-Truppen, so lange wie nötig, zu jeder Zeit Haben Sie keine Angst vor Herausforderungen. Deutsch Vertrauen sollte stets begleiten ihre Soldaten!。

希望对您有所帮助。

菊丸英二的声优简介

Russia (Russian: Росси́я, Rossiya; pronounced [rʌ'sʲi.jə]), also[1] the Russian Federation (Russian: Росси́йская Федера́ция, Rossiyskaya Federatsiya; pronounced [rʌ'sʲi.skə.jə fʲɪ.dʲɪ'ra.ʦɪ.jə], listen (help·info)), is a country that stretches over a vast expanse of Eurasia. With an area of 17,075,400 square kilometres, it is the largest country in the world by land mass, covering almost twice the territory of the next-largest country, Canada. It has the world's eighth largest population. Russia shares land borders with the following countries (counter-clockwise from NW to SE): Norway, Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Belarus, Ukraine, Georgia, Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, China, Mongolia, and North Korea. It is also close to the United States and Japan across relatively small stretches of water.。

Formerly the dominant republic of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR), Russia is now an independent country and an influential member of the Commonwealth of Independent States, since the Union's dissolution in December 1991. During the Soviet era, Russia was officially called the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (RSFSR). Russia is considered the Soviet Union's successor state in diplomatic matters.。

Most of the area, population, and industrial production of the Soviet Union, then one of the world's two superpowers, lay in Russia. After the breakup of the Soviet Union, Russia's global role was greatly diminished compared to that of the former Soviet Union. In October 2005, the federal statistics agency reported that Russia's population has shrunk by more than half a million people dipping to 143 million, although Russia became the second country in the world by the number of immigrants from abroad.[2]。

Ancient Rus

Prior to the Christian Era, the vast lands of Southern Russia were home to un-united tribes, such as Proto-Indo-Europeans and Scythians. Between the third and sixth centuries Common Era, the steppes were overwhelmed by successive waves of nomadic invasions, led by warlike tribes which would often move on to Europe, as was the case with Huns and Turkish Avars. A Turkic people, the Khazars, ruled South Russia through the eighth century. They were important allies of the Byzantine Empire and waged a series of successful wars against the Arab Califates.。

An approximative map of the cultures in European Russia at the arrival of the VarangiansThe Early East Slavs constituted the bulk of the population in Western Russia from the seventh century onwards and slowly assimilated the native Finno-Ugric tribes, such as the Merya, the Muromians and the Meshchera. In the mid-ninth century, a group of Scandinavians, the Varangians, assumed the role of a ruling elite at the Slavic capital of Novgorod. Although they were quickly assimilated by the predominantly Slavic population, the Varangian dynasty lasted several centuries, during which they affiliated with the Byzantine, or Orthodox church and moved the capital to Kiev in AD 882.。

In this era, the term "Rhos" or "Rus" first came to be applied to the Varangians and later also to the Slavs who peopled the region. As well as one of the rulers who contributed to the name "rus" [...] In the tenth to eleventh centuries this state of Kievan Rus became the largest in Europe and one of the most prosperous, due to diversified trade with both Europe and Asia. The opening of new trade routes with the Orient at the time of the Crusades contributed to the decline and fragmentation of Kievan Rus by the end of the twelfth century.。

In the eleventh and twelfth centuries common era, the constant incursions of nomadic Turkish tribes, such as the Kipchaks and the Pechenegs, led to the massive migration of Slavic populations from the fertile south to the heavily forested regions of the north, known as Zalesye. The medieval states of Novgorod Republic and Vladimir-Suzdal emerged as successors to Kievan Rus on those territories, while the middle course of the Volga River came to be dominated by the Muslim state of Volga Bulgaria.。

Like many other parts of Eurasia, these territories were overrun by the Mongol invaders, who formed the state of Golden Horde which would pillage the Russian principalities for over three centuries. Later known as the Tatars, they ruled the southern and central expanses of present-day Russia, while the territories of present-day Ukraine and Belarus were incorporated into the Grand Duchy of Lithuania and Poland, thus dividing the Russian people in the north from the Belarusians and Ukrainians in the west.。

Similarly to the Balkans and Asia Minor, long-lasting nomadic rule retarded the country's economic and social development. However, the Novgorod Republic together with Pskov retained some degree of autonomy during the time of the Mongol yoke and was largely spared the atrocities that affected the rest of the country. Led by Alexander Nevsky, the Novgorodians repelled the Germanic crusaders who attempted to colonize the region.。

Muscovy

Main article: Muscovy。

Unlike its spiritual leader the Byzantine Empire, Russia under the leadership of Moscow was able to revive and organized its own war of reconquest, finally subjugating its enemies and annexing their territories. After the fall of Constantinople in 1453, Muscovite Russia remained the only more or less functional Christian state on the Eastern European frontier, allowing it to claim succession to the legacy of the Eastern Roman Empire.。

While still under the domain of the Mongol-Tatars and with their connivance, the duchy of Moscow began to assert its influence in Western Russia in the early fourteenth century. Assisted by the Russian Orthodox Church and Saint Sergius of Radonezh's spiritual revival, Muscovy inflicted a defeat on the Mongol-Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380). Ivan the Great eventually tossed off the control of the invaders, consolidated surrounding areas under Moscow's dominion and first took the title "grand duke of all the Russias".。

In the beginning of the sixteenth century, the Russian state set the national goal to return all Russian territories lost as a result of the Tatar invasion and to protect the southern borderland against attacks of Crimean Tatars and other Turkic peoples. The noblemen, receiving a manor from the sovereign, were obliged to serve in the military. The manor system became a basis for the nobiliary horse army.。

In 1547, Ivan the Terrible was officially crowned the first Tsar of Russia. During his long reign, Ivan annexed the Muslim polities along the Volga River and transformed Russia into a multiethnic and multiconfessional state. By the end of the century, Russian Cossacks established the first settlements in Western Siberia. In the middle of the seventeenth century there were Russian settlements in Eastern Siberia, on Chukchi Peninsula, along the Amur River, on the Pacific coast, and the strait between North America and Asia was first sighted by a Russian explorer in 1648. The colonization of the Asian territories was largely peaceful, in sharp contrast to the build-up of other colonial empires of the time.。

Imperial Russia。

View of Neva River in Saint Petersburg 。

Three generations of a Russian family, c.1910Main article: Imperial Russia。

Muscovite control of the nascent nation continued after the Polish intervention of under the subsequent Romanov dynasty, beginning with Tsar Michael Romanov in 1613. Peter the Great (ruled in) defeated Sweden in the Great Northern War, forcing it to cede Ingria, Estland, and Livland. It was in Ingria that he founded a new capital, Saint Petersburg. Peter succeeded in bringing ideas and culture from Western Europe to a severely underdeveloped Russia. After his reforms, Russia emerged as a major European power.。

Catherine the Great, ruling from 1762 to 1796, continued the Petrine efforts at establishing Russia as one of the great powers of Europe. Examples of its eighteenth-century European involvement include the War of Polish Succession and the Seven Years' War. In the wake of the Partitions of Poland, Russia had taken territories with the ethnic Belarusian and Ukrainian population, earlier parts of Kievan Rus'. As a result of the victorious Russian-Turkish wars, Russia's borders expanded to the Black Sea and Russia set its goal on the protection of Balkan Christians against a Turkish yoke. In 1783, Russia and the Georgian Kingdom (which was almost totally devastated by Persian and Turkish invasions) signed the treaty of Georgievsk according to which Georgia received the protection of Russia.。

In 1812, having gathered nearly half a million soldiers from France, as well as from all of its conquered states in Europe, Napoleon invaded Russia but, after taking Moscow, was forced to retreat back to Europe. Almost 90% of the invading forces died as a result of on-going battles with the Russian army, guerillas and winter weather. The Russian armies ended their pursuit of the enemy by taking his capital, Paris. The officers of the Napoleonic wars brought back to Russia the ideas of liberalism and even attempted to curtail the tsar's powers during the abortive Decembrist revolt (1825), which was followed by several decades of political repression. Another result of the Napoleonic wars was the incorporation of Bessarabia, Finland, and Congress Poland into the Russian Empire.。

The perseverance of Russian serfdom and the conservative policies of Nicholas I of Russia impeded the development of Imperial Russia in the mid-nineteenth century. As a result, the country was defeated in the Crimean War, 1853–1856, by an alliance of major European powers, including Britain, France, Ottoman Empire, and Piedmont-Sardinia. Nicholas's successor Alexander II (1855–1881) was forced to undertake a series of comprehensive reforms and issued a decree abolishing serfdom in 1861. The Great Reforms of Alexander's reign spurred increasingly rapid capitalist development and Sergei Witte's attempts at industrialization. The Slavophile mood was on the rise, spearheaded by Russia's victory in the Russo-Turkish War, which forced the Ottoman Empire to recognize the independence of Romania, Serbia and Montenegro and autonomy of Bulgaria.。

The failure of agrarian reforms and suppression of the growing liberal intelligentsia were continuing problems however, and on the eve of World War I, the position of Tsar Nicholas II and his dynasty appeared precarious. Repeated devastating defeats of the Russian army in the Russo-Japanese War and World War I, and the consequent deterioration of the economy led to widespread rioting in the major cities of the Russian Empire, and ultimately to the overthrow in 1917 of the Romanovs.。

At the close of this Russian Revolution of 1917, a Marxist political faction called the Bolsheviks seized power in Petrograd and Moscow under the leadership of Vladimir Lenin. The Bolsheviks changed their name to the Communist Party. A bloody civil war ensued, pitting the Bolsheviks' Red Army against a loose confederation of anti-socialist monarchist and bourgeois forces known as the White Army. The Red Army triumphed, and the Soviet Union was formed in 1922.。

Russia as part of the Soviet Union。

St. Basil's Cathedral and the Spasskaya Tower of the Kremlin in Moscow's Red Square.Main articles: History of the Soviet Union and Russian SFSR。

The Soviet Union was meant to be a trans-national worker's state free from nationalism. The concept of Russia as a separate national entity was therefore not emphasized in the early Soviet Union. Although Russian institutions and cities certainly remained dominant, many non-Russians participated in the new government at all levels.。

Lenin

This section is a stub. You can help by expanding it.。

Stalin

One of these was a Georgian named Joseph Stalin. After Lenin's death in 1924, a brief power struggle ensued, during which Stalin gradually eroded the various checks and balances which had been designed into the Soviet political system and assumed dictatorial power by the end of the decade. Leon Trotsky and almost all other Old Bolsheviks from the time of the Revolution were killed or exiled. At the end of 1930s, Stalin launched the Great Purges, a massive series of political repressions. Millions of people whom Stalin and local authorities suspected of being a threat to their power were executed or exiled to Gulag labor camps in remote areas of Siberia or Central Asia.。

Stalin forced rapid industrialization of the largely rural country and collectivization of its agriculture. In 1928, Stalin introduced his "First Five-Year Plan" for modernizing the Soviet economy. Most economic output was immediately diverted to establishing heavy industry. Civilian industry was modernized and many heavy weapon factories were established. The plan worked, in some sense, as the Soviet Union successfully transformed from an agrarian economy to a major industrial powerhouse in an unbelievably short span of time, but widespread misery and famine ensued for many millions of people as a result of the severe economic upheaval.。

After the Great Patriotic War started in 1941 the German army had considerable success in the early stages of the campaign, they suffered defeat when they reached the outskirts of Moscow. The Red Army then stopped the Nazi offensive at the Battle of Stalingrad in 1943, which became the decisive turning point for Germany's fortunes in the war. The Soviets drove through Eastern Europe and captured Berlin before Germany surrendered in 1945 (see Great Patriotic War). During the war, the Soviet Union lost more than 27 million [citizens] (including eighteen million [civilians]).。

Although ravaged by the war, the Soviet Union emerged from the conflict as an acknowledged superpower. The Red Army occupied Eastern Europe after the war, including the eastern half of Germany. Stalin installed loyal communist governments in these satellite states.。

During the immediate postwar period, the Soviet Union first rebuilt and then expanded its economy, with control always exerted exclusively from Moscow. The Soviets extracted heavy war reparations from the areas of Germany under their control, mostly in the form of machinery and industrial equipment. The Soviet Union consolidated its hold on Eastern Europe (see Eastern bloc). The United States helped the Western European countries establish democracies, and both countries sought to achieve economic, political, and ideological dominance over the Third World. The ensuing struggle became known as the Cold War, which turned the Soviet Union's wartime allies, the United Kingdom and the United States, into its foes.。

Stalin died in early 1953 presumably without leaving any instructions for the selection of a successor. His closest associates officially decided to rule the Soviet Union jointly, but the secret police chief Lavrenty Beria appeared poised to seize dictatorial control. General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev and other leading politicians organized an anti-Beria alliance and staged a coup d'état. Beria was arrested in June 1953 and executed later that year; Khrushchev became the undisputed leader of the Soviet Union.。

Khrushchev

Yuri Gagarin, the first human in space.Under Khrushchev, the Soviet Union launched the world's first artificial satellite, Sputnik 1, and the Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first person to orbit the Earth. Khrushchev's reforms in agriculture and administration, however, were generally unproductive, and foreign policy toward China and the United States suffered reverses, notably the Cuban Missile Crisis, when he began installing nuclear missiles in Cuba (after the United States installed Jupiter missiles in Turkey which nearly provoked a war with the Soviet Union). Over the course of several angry outbursts at the United Nations, Khrushchev was increasingly seen by his colleagues as belligerent, boorish, and dangerous. The remainder of the Soviet leadership removed him from power in 1964.。

Following the ousting of Khrushchev, another period of rule by collective leadership ensued, lasting until Leonid Brezhnev established himself in the early 1970s as the pre-eminent figure in Soviet political life. Brezhnev is frequently derided by historians for stagnating the development of the Soviet Union (see "Brezhnev stagnation"). In contrast to the revolutionary spirit that accompanied the birth of the Soviet Union, the prevailing mood of the Soviet leadership at the time of Brezhnev's death in 1982 was one of aversion to change.。

Gorbachev

In the mid 1980s, the reform-minded Mikhail Gorbachev came to power. He introduced the landmark policies of glasnost (openness) and perestroika (restructuring), in an attempt to modernize Soviet communism. Glasnost meant that the harsh restrictions on free speech that had characterized most of the Soviet Union's existence were removed, and open political discourse and criticism of the government became possible again. Perestroika meant sweeping economic reforms designed to decentralize the planning of the Soviet economy. However, his initiatives provoked strong resentment amongst conservative elements of the government, and an unsuccessful military coup that attempted to remove Gorbachev from power instead led to the collapse of the Soviet Union. Boris Yeltsin came to power and declared the end of exclusive Communist rule. The USSR splintered into fifteen independent republics, and was officially dissolved in December of 1991 (see History of the Soviet Union).。

Since then, Russia has struggled in its efforts to build a democratic political system and a market economy to replace the strict centralized social, political, and economic controls of the Soviet era.。

Post-Soviet Russia。

Main article: History of post-Soviet Russia。

See also: Politics of Russia 。

Prior to the dissolution of the Soviet Union, Boris Yeltsin had been elected President of Russia in June 1991 in the first direct presidential election in Russian history. In October 1991, as Russia was on the verge of independence, Yeltsin announced that Russia would proceed with radical market-oriented reform along the lines of "shock therapy".。

After the disintegration of the USSR, the Russian economy went through a crisis. Russia took up the responsibility for settling the USSR's external debts, even though its population made up just half of the population of the USSR at the time of its dissolution. The largest state enterprises (petroleum, metallurgy, and the like) were controversially privatized for the small sum of $US 600 million, far less than they were worth, while the majority of the population plunged into poverty.。

Russia's Congress of People's Deputies, in which the Communist presence was the strongest, attempted to impeach Yeltsin on March 26, 1993. Yeltsin's opponents gathered more than 600 votes for impeachment, but fell 72 votes short. On September 21, 1993, Yeltsin disbanded the Supreme Soviet and the Congress of People's Deputies by decree, which was illegal under the constitution. On the same day there was a military showdown, the Russian constitutional crisis of 1993. With military help, Yeltsin held control. The conflict resulted in a number of civilian casualties, but was resolved in Yeltsin's favor. According to different sources, the total number of deceased was between 300 and 2,000 people. Elections were held and the current Constitution of the Russian Federation was adopted on December 12, 1993.。

Modern MoscowThe 1990s were plagued by armed ethnic conflicts in the North Caucasus. Such conflicts took a form of separatist insurrections against federal power (most notably in Chechnya), or of ethnic/clan conflicts between local groups (e.g., in North Ossetia-Alania between Ossetians and Ingushs, or between different cla。

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