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关于葡萄酒成分的变化与（土壤）植物根瘤病的两个问题

Chocolate (see below for etymology) describes a number of raw and processed foods that originate from the tropical cacao tree. It is a common ingredient in many kinds of sweets, chocolate candy, ice creams, cookies, cakes, pies, and desserts. It is one of the most popular flavours in the world.。

Chocolate is made from the fermented, roasted, and ground beans taken from the pod of the tropical cacao tree Theobroma cacao native to Central America, which has an intensely flavoured bitter taste. The resulting products are known as "chocolate" or, in some parts of the world, cocoa.。

The bean products are known under different names in different parts of the world. In the American chocolate industry:。

Cocoa is the solids of the cacao bean, 。

Cocoa butter is the fat component, and 。

Chocolate is a combination of the solids and the fat. 。

It is the solid and the fat combination, sweetened with sugar and other ingredients, that is made into chocolate bars and which is commonly referred to as chocolate by the public.。

It can also be made into beverages (called cocoa and hot chocolate), and this was the original form used by the Aztecs, the Mayas, and the first European consumers.。

Chocolate is often produced as small moulded forms in the shape of animals, people, or inanimate objects to celebrate festivals worldwide. For example, moulds of rabbits or eggs for Easter, coins or Saint Nicholas (Santa Claus) for Christmas, and hearts for Valentine's Day.。

Types

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Classification

Chocolate truffles typically have a thin shell of chocolate with a soft centre.Chocolate is an extremely popular ingredient, and it is available in many types. Different forms and flavours of chocolate are produced by varying the quantities of the different ingredients. Other flavours can be obtained by varying the time and temperature when roasting the beans.。

Unsweetened chocolate is pure chocolate liquor, also known as bitter or baking chocolate. It is unadulterated chocolate: the pure, ground roasted chocolate beans impart a strong, deep chocolate flavour. With the addition of sugar, however, it is used as the base for cakes, brownies, confections, and cookies. 。

Dark chocolate is chocolate without milk as an additive. It is sometimes called "plain chocolate". The U.S. Government calls this "sweet chocolate", and requires a 15% concentration of chocolate liquor. European rules specify a minimum of 35% cocoa solids. 。

Milk chocolate is chocolate with milk powder or condensed milk added. The U.S. Government requires a 10% concentration of chocolate liquor. EU regulations specify a minimum of 25% cocoa solids. 。

Semisweet chocolate is often used for cooking purposes. It is a dark chocolate with high sugar content. 。

Bittersweet chocolate is chocolate liquor (or unsweetened chocolate) to which sugar, more cocoa butter, lecithin, and vanilla has been added. It has less sugar and more liquor than semisweet chocolate, but the two are interchangeable in baking. The best quality bittersweet and semisweet chocolates are produced as couverture; many brands now print on the package the percentage of cocoa (as chocolate liquor and added cocoa butter) contained. The rule is that the higher the percentage of cocoa, the less sweet the chocolate will be. 。

Couverture is a term used for chocolates rich in cocoa butter. Popular brands of couverture used by professional pastry chefs and often sold in gourmet and specialty food stores include: Valrhona, Felchlin, Lindt & Sprüngli, Cacao Barry, Callebaut, and Guittard. These chocolates contain a high percentage of cocoa (sometimes 70% or more) and have a total fat content of 36-40%. 。

White chocolate is a confection based on cocoa butter without the cocoa solids. 。

Cocoa powder. There are two types of unsweetened baking cocoa available: natural cocoa (like the sort produced by Hershey's and Nestlé) and Dutch-process cocoa (such as the Hershey's European Style Cocoa and the Droste brand). Both are made by pulverising partially defatted chocolate liquor and removing nearly all the cocoa butter. Natural cocoa is light in colour and somewhat acidic with a strong chocolate flavour. Natural cocoa is commonly used in recipes which call for baking soda. Because baking soda is an alkali, combining it with natural cocoa creates a leavening action that allows the batter to rise during baking. Dutch-process cocoa is processed with alkali to neutralise its natural acidity. Dutch cocoa is slightly milder in taste, with a deeper and warmer colour than natural cocoa. Dutch-process cocoa is frequently used for chocolate drinks such as hot chocolate due to its ease in blending with liquids. Unfortunately, Dutch processing destroys most of the flavanols present in cocoa.[1] 。

Flavours such as mint, orange, or strawberry are sometimes added to chocolate. Chocolate bars frequently contain added ingredients such as peanuts, nuts, caramel, or even crisped rice.。

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Definition

Strictly speaking, chocolate is any product based 99% on cocoa solid and/or cocoa fat. Because it is used in a vast number of other foods, any change in the cost of making it has a huge impact on the industry. Adding ingredients is an aspect of the taste. On the other hand, reducing cocoa solid content, or substituting cocoa fat with a non-cocoa one, reduces the cost of making it. There has been disagreement in the EU about the definition of chocolate.。

Some want to see the definition allowing for any cocoa solid content and any kind of fat in chocolate. This would allow a merely coloured and flavoured margarine to be sold as being chocolate. In some countries this happens, and a 50% to 70% cocoa solid dark-chocolate, with no additive, for domestic use, is hard to find and expensive. 。

Others believe in adhering more strictly to the definition above. 。

Chocolate can be moulded or, as in this Spanish art, sculpted.[edit]。

History

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Etymology

The name chocolate most likely comes from the Nahuatl language indigenous to central Mexico, although it may have been influenced by the Mayan languages. One popular theory is that it comes from the Nahuatl word xocolatl (IPA /ɕɔ.kɔ.atɬ/), derived from xocolli, bitter, and atl, water. On the other hand, Mexican philologist Ignacio Davila Garibi proposed that "Spaniards had coined the word by taking the Maya word chocol and then replacing the Maya term for water, haa, with the Aztec one, atl." But this theory assumes that the conquistadores would change indigenous words from two very different languages, while at the same time adopting hundreds of other words from these same languages as-is; a highly unlikely scenario.。

In a recent article, linguists Karen Dakin and Søren Wichmann found that in many dialects of Nahuatl, the name is 'chicolatl', rather than 'chocolatl'. In addition, many languages in Mexico, such as Popoluca, Mixtec and Zapotec, and even languages spoken in the Philippines have borrowed this form of the word. The word chicol-li refers to the beating sticks still used in some areas in cooking, and that are either a small straight stick with small strong twigs still on one end or a stiff plant stalk with the stubs of roots cleaned and trimmed. Since chocolate was originally served ceremonially with individual beater sticks, it seems quite likely that the original form of the word was 'chicolatl', which would have the etymology 'beater drink'. In many areas of Mexico, 'chicolear' means 'to beat, stir'.。

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Origins

The chocolate residue found in an ancient Maya pot suggests that Maya were drinking chocolate 2,600 years ago, the earliest record of cacao use. The Aztecs associated chocolate with Xochiquetzal, the goddess of fertility. In the New World, chocolate was consumed in a bitter and spicy drink called xocoatl, often seasoned with vanilla, chile pepper, achiote (which we know today as annatto) and pimento. Xocoatl was believed to fight fatigue, a belief that is probably attributable to the theobromine content. Chocolate was an important luxury good throughout pre-Columbian Mesoamerica, and cocoa beans were often used as currency. Other chocolate drinks combined it with such edibles as maize gruel (which acts as an emulsifier) and honey.。

The xocolatl was said to be an acquired taste. Jose de Acosta, a Spanish Jesuit missionary who lived in Peru and then Mexico in the later 16th century, wrote of it:。

Loathsome to such as are not acquainted with it, having a scum or froth that is very unpleasant to taste. Yet it is a drink very much esteemed among the Indians, where with they feast noble men who pass through their country. The Spaniards, both men and women, that are accustomed to the country, are very greedy of this Chocolaté. They say they make diverse sorts of it, some hot, some cold, and some temperate, and put therein much of that "chili"; yea, they make paste thereof, the which they say is good for the stomach and against the catarrh.。

Christopher Columbus brought some cocoa beans to show Ferdinand and Isabella of Spain, but it remained for Hernando de Soto to introduce it to Europe more broadly.。

The first recorded shipment of chocolate to the Old World for commercial purposes was in a shipment from Veracruz to Seville in 1585. It was still served as a beverage, but the Europeans added sugar and milk to counteract the natural bitterness and removed the chilli pepper, replacing it with another Mexican indigenous spice, vanilla. Improvements to the taste meant that by the 17th century it was a luxury item among the European nobility.。

At the end of the 18th century, the first form of solid chocolate was invented in Turin by Doret. This chocolate was sold in large quantities from 1826 by Pierre Paul Caffarel. In 1819 F. L. Cailler opened the first Swiss chocolate factory. In 1828 Dutchman Conrad J. van Houten patented a method for extracting the fat from cocoa beans and making powdered cocoa and cocoa butter. Van Houten also developed the so-called Dutch process of treating chocolate with alkali to remove the bitter taste. This made it possible to form the modern chocolate bar. It is believed that the Englishman Joseph Fry made the first chocolate for eating in 1847, followed shortly after by the Cadbury brothers.。

Daniel Peter, a Swiss candle maker, joined his father-in-law's chocolate business. In 1867 he began experimenting with milk as an ingredient. He brought his new product, milk chocolate, to market in 1875. He was assisted in removing the water content from the milk to prevent mildewing by a neighbour, a baby food manufacturer named Henri Nestlé. Rodolphe Lindt invented the process called conching, which involves heating and grinding the chocolate solids very finely to ensure that the liquid is evenly blended.。

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Physiological effects。

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Toxicity in animals。

Main article: theobromine poisoning 。

In sufficient amounts the theobromine found in chocolate is toxic to animals such as horses, dogs, parrots, voles, and cats (kittens especially) because they are unable to metabolise the chemical effectively. If they are fed chocolate, the theobromine will remain in their bloodstream for up to 20 hours, and these animals may experience epileptic seizures, heart attacks, internal bleeding, and eventually death. Medical treatment involves inducing vomiting within two hours of ingestion, or contacting a veterinarian.。

A typical 20-kilogram dog will normally experience intestinal distress after eating less than 240 grams of milk chocolate, but will not necessarily experience bradycardia or tachycardia unless it eats at least a half a kilogram of milk chocolate. Dark, sweet chocolate has about 50% more theobromine and thus is more dangerous to dogs. According to the Merck Veterinary Manual, approximately 1.3 grams of baker's chocolate per kilogram of a dog's body weight (0.02 oz/lb) is sufficient to cause symptoms of toxicity. For example, a typical 25-gram baker's chocolate bar would be enough to bring about symptoms in a 20-kilogram dog.。

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Health benefits。

Recent studies have shown that cocoa or dark chocolate has potent health benefits for people. Dark chocolate, with its high cocoa content, is full of the flavonoids epicatechin and gallic acid, which are antioxidants that help protect blood vessels, promote cardiac health, and prevent cancer. It also has been effectively demonstrated to counteract mild hypertension. In fact, dark chocolate has more flavonoids than any other antioxidant-rich food such as red wine, green and black tea, and blueberries. There has even been a fad diet named "Chocolate diet" that emphasises eating chocolate and cocoa powder in capsules. However, consuming milk chocolate or white chocolate, or drinking milk with dark chocolate, appears to largely negate the health benefits. Chocolate is also a calorie-rich food with a high content of saturated fat, so daily intake of chocolate also requires reducing caloric intake of other foods.。

Two-thirds of the fat in chocolate comes in the forms of a saturated fat called stearic acid and a monounsaturated fat called oleic acid. However, unlike other saturated fats, stearic acid does not raise levels of LDL cholesterol in the bloodstream[2]. A 2001 study by researchers at Penn State University found that the flavonoids in chocolate slowed the oxidation of LDL cholesterol, a process that is believed to lead to atherosclerosis[3].。

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Medical applications。

Mars, Incorporated, a Virginia-based candy company, spends millions of dollars each year on flavanol research. The company is in talks with pharmaceutical companies to license drugs based on synthesized cocoa flavanol molecules. According to Mars-funded researchers at Harvard, the University of California, and European universities, cocoa-based prescription drugs could potentially help treat diabetes, dementia and other diseases. [1]。

Mars is presently marketing the Cocoavia™ brand , a line of functional food chocolates which have cholesterol-reducing phytosterols and at least 100 milligrams of flavanols. The snacks are designed to be eaten primarily for heart benefits, and as such, Mars has recommended a regimen of two snacks per day.。

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Chocolate as a drug。

Current research indicates that chocolate is a weak stimulant because of its content of theobromine.[2] However, chocolate contains too little of this compound for a reasonable serving to create effects in humans that are on par with a coffee buzz. The pharmacologist Ryan J. Huxtable aptly noted that "[Chocolate is] more than a food but less than a drug". However, chocolate is a very potent stimulant for dogs and horses; its use is therefore banned in horse-racing. Theobromine is also a contributing factor in acid reflux because it relaxes the esophageal sphincter muscle, allowing stomach acid to more easily enter the esophagus.。

Chocolate also contains caffeine in significant amounts, though less than tea or coffee, according to careful scientific studies and despite a few websites which claim otherwise. Some chocolate products contain synthetic caffeine as an additive.。

Chocolate also contains small quantities of the endogenous cannabinoid anandamide and the cannabinoid breakdown inhibitors N-oleoylethanolamine and N-linolenoylethanolamine. Anandamides are produced naturally by the body, in such a way that their effects are extremely targeted (compared to the broad systemic effects of drugs like tetrahydrocannabinol) and relatively short-lived. In experiments N-oleoylethanolamine and N-linolenoylethanolamine interfere with the body's natural mechanisms for breaking down endogenous cannabinoids, causing them to last longer. However, noticeable effects of chocolate related to this mechanism in humans have not yet been demonstrated.。

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Pleasure of consuming chocolate。

Part of the pleasure of eating chocolate is ascribed to the fact that its melting point is slightly below human body temperature; it melts in the mouth. Chocolate intake has been linked with release of serotonin in the brain, which is thought to produce feelings of pleasure.。

Research has shown that heroin addicts tend to have an increased liking for chocolate; this may be because it triggers dopamine release in the brain's reinforcement systems – an effect, albeit a legal one, similar to that of opium. See also: chocoholic.。

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Chocolate as an aphrodisiac。

Romantic lore commonly identifies chocolate as an aphrodisiac. The reputed aphrodisiac qualities of chocolate are most often associated with the simple sensual pleasure of its consumption. More recently, suggestion has been made that serotonin and other chemicals found in chocolate, most notably phenethylamine, can act as mild sexual stimulants. While there is no firm proof that chocolate is indeed an aphrodisiac, giving a gift of chocolate to one's sweetheart is a familiar courtship ritual.。

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Acne

There is a popular belief that the consumption of chocolate can cause acne. Such an effect could not be shown in scientific studies as the results are inconclusive.[3]。

Chocolate, ranging from dark to light, can be moulded and decorated like these chickens with ribbons.[edit]。

Lead

Chocolate has one of the highest concentrations of lead among all products that constitute a typical Westerner's diet. This is thought to happen because the cocoa beans are mostly grown in developing countries such as Nigeria. Those countries still use tetra-ethyl lead as a gasoline additive and, consequently, have high atmospheric concentrations of lead. According to the U.S. Food and Drug Administration, levels of lead in chocolate are sufficiently low that even people who eat large amounts of chocolate every day are not at risk of any adverse effects.。

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Production

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Varieties

There are three main varieties of cacao beans used in chocolates. "Criollo", the variety native to Central America, the Caribbean islands and the northern tier of South American states, is the rarest and most expensive cocoa on the market. There is some dispute about the genetic purity of cocoas sold today as Criollo, since most populations have been exposed to the genetic influence of other varieties. Criollos are difficult to grow, as they are vulnerable to a host of environmental threats and deliver low yields of cocoa per tree. The flavor of Criollo is characterized as delicate but complex, low in classic "chocolate" flavor, but rich in "secondary" notes of long duration. Forastero is a large group of wild and cultivated cacaos, probably native to the Amazon basin. The huge African cocoa crop is entirely of the Forastero variety. They are significantly hardier and of higher yield than Criollo. Forastero cocoas are typically big in classic "chocolate" flavor, but this is of short duration and is unsupported by secondary flavors. There are exceptional Forasteros, such as the "Nacional" or "Arriba" variety, which can possess great complexity. Trinitario, a natural hybrid of Criollo and Forastero, originated in Trinidad after an introduction of (Amelonado) Forastero to the local Criollo crop. These cocoas exhibit a wide range of flavor profiles according to the genetic heritage of each tree.。

Nearly all cacao produced over the past five decades is of the Forastero or lower-grade Trinitario varieties. The share of higher quality Criollos and Trinitarios (so-called flavour cacao) is just under 5% per annum [4].。

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Harvesting

Firstly, the cacao pods, containing cacao beans, are harvested. The beans, together with their surrounding pulp, are removed from the pod and left in piles or bins to ferment for 3-7 days. The beans must then be quickly dried to prevent mold growth; climate permitting, this is done by spreading the beans out in the sun.。

The beans are then roasted, graded and ground. Cocoa butter is removed from the resulting chocolate liquor either by being pres。

高分求教!!!谢谢!

我全知道：

1，葡萄酒在装瓶后，在瓶中有一个变化的过程，这个过程基本可以分为，上升期，适饮期，衰退期。

所谓上升期，是葡萄酒在瓶中发展完善的阶段，并非所有的酒都有这样的阶段，绝大多数新世界的酒，即使是顶级酒在上市以后也就可以立即饮用了。但是有一些旧世界的酒这个上升期就比较明显，刚刚出来的时候并不适于饮用，或者太过酸涩不平衡，或者非常封闭没有什么香气，要经过几年在瓶中继续发展成熟，才变得完美顺口。

而适饮期则是葡萄酒变得相对完美顺口的阶段，其中发展到最好最平衡的时候就叫做巅峰期。而葡萄酒过了巅峰期以后就开始慢慢走下坡路，失去很多香气，口感也慢慢失去平衡，进入衰退期，不适于饮用，甚至酸败成醋。

最终发现对于葡萄酒陈年的影响最大的是氧气。曾经有人做过一个实验，将葡萄酒分装到6个不同的试管里面，其中3个装满，另外3个只装一半，留一半空气，然后用塞子塞好。经过不同时间打开品尝发现，那些留有空气的试管内的酒，仅仅几个月就可以变成如同陈年过几年的一样。

葡萄酒在瓶中变化是一个缓慢过程，软木塞是能够缓慢透过氧气的，让葡萄酒在瓶中继续发展。太过恶劣的保存环境会加速这个过程，让葡萄酒成熟过快，酒质变得粗糙，甚至很快酸败。葡萄酒需要在避光，避震，温度在10～18度，湿度在70～80%左右的条件下横放保存最为理想。其他的方法都会加速葡萄酒的成熟，甚至让酒变成一瓶醋。

红葡萄酒含有单宁，单宁本身是抗氧化剂，所以单宁的多少对于葡萄酒的陈年能力具有比较重要的作用（当然不是越重越好）。单宁需要时间来软化，可以通过和氧气的适量接触及酒里面其他物质的反映能够生成新的物质，增加葡萄酒的复杂性。除了薄若莱新酒需要在几个月内喝掉，多数的干红葡萄酒都能够放上1～2年没什么问题。较高级的干红葡萄酒还需要经过一段时间陈年，让其发展进入适饮期。葡萄酒的陈年能力主要看的是葡萄酒的“潜质”，它来自葡萄酒的单宁，酸度，香气物质等，越是好酒，里面这些成分越多，也就相应可以通过陈年来获得更多的复杂成分。前面大概说说影响到陈年的一些因素，具体要了解一支酒还能放多长时间，最好的方法还是去尝尝他。当然需要一些经验，最好的方法是一支酒买个十几瓶，每隔3～6个月就打开一瓶，看看发展的情况。简单的方法是，打开一瓶酒，慢慢的喝，如果在很长时间内，它都保持稳定的结构的话，就可以放一段时间。

保存葡萄酒最忌讳的是温度的强烈变化，如果你在店家购买的时候是处于常温之下，则在家里只要保存于常温之下即可。你若想饮用冰镇过的葡萄酒于饮用前冰冻即可。如果你将葡萄酒储存于冰箱中，只适合存放于温度变化较小的蔬菜室内。最理想与长期的储存环境是温度约在摄氏12~14度间保持恒温，湿度在65％~80％间，保持黑暗，一般酒都放置于地下室。保持干净，以免其它异味渗入酒内。

由于红酒被喻为有生命力的液体，是由于红酒当中含有丹宁酸(Tannic Acid)的成分，丹宁酸跟空气接触之后所产生的变化是非常丰富的。而要分辨一瓶酒的变化最好的方式是开瓶后第一次倒2杯，而先饮用一杯，另一杯则放置至最后才饮用，就能很清楚的感觉出来。每一瓶酒的变化时间并不一样，也许在10分钟、也许半个小时、也许在两个小时后。如何去发觉酒的生命力就靠自己的感觉跟经验了。

过酒的方式，是将葡萄酒倒入醒酒瓶(Decenter)的动作称为过酒，但过酒的目的到底何在?。

其实有二，一是藉此将陈置多年的沉淀物去除。虽然喝下这些沉淀物并无任何大碍，但有损葡萄酒的风味，所以必须去除。

另一则是使年份较少的葡萄酒将其原始的风味，从沉睡中苏醒过来。因为葡萄酒会因过酒的动作而有机会与空气接触，此时沉睡中的葡萄酒将立刻芳香四溢，味道也变的圆润了。

『品酒步骤』

1. 观其色泽--将酒道在高脚杯中，握着杯脚，看其色泽。

2. 闻其香味--轻摇酒杯让香气释放出来，闻其散发的香味。

3. 品尝--啜饮一小口，让酒在舌尖溶动，感觉其味道及酸甜度。

先说说品酒的五个基本步骤：颜色、摇晃、闻酒、品尝、回味。

（一）颜色。想要看出葡萄酒的颜色，最好要有一个白色背景，并将酒杯放在它前面。当然颜色范围要看您品尝的是白葡萄酒（以下简称白酒）还是红酒而定。下面是两种酒的颜色：白酒有淡黄绿、稻草黄、金黄、金、暗金、马德拉酒色和棕色；红酒有紫、红宝石、药砖红、红棕、棕色。颜色会告诉您许多有关酒的事，例如白酒，当它们变老会加深颜色，相反地，红酒则会失去色泽。

（二）摇晃。为什么要晃酒？为了让氧气进入酒内。我不确定你准确好了没有，不过我可以很直接地告诉您：摇晃会使酯、醚和乙醛释放出来，并和氧气使酒产生香气。

（三）闻酒。 现在您已经摇晃使香气释放出来，酒闻起来像什么呢？它有那种形态的 NOSE ， "NOSE" 为品酒人通常用事业形容酒综合气味的字。精确地指出酒的 NOSE 其后意义是让您能辨认出酒某些特性。

（四）品尝。对大部分人来说，品酒指的是啜一口酒并快速吞下去。但这不叫品酒。品酒是一件用味蕾去从事的事情。记得它布满您口腔四周；舌头两侧、舌背、舌尖，并延伸到喉头底部。您如果像大部分人一样牛饮葡萄酒的话，就忽略掉所有重要的品尝味蕾了。

葡萄酒业有种古老的廉洁： " 买酒用苹果，卖酒用乳酪 " 。苹果会把葡萄酒中缺陷呈现出来，乳酪则有使葡萄酒气味变柔顺的倾向，留下使您更觉愉快的品尝滋味。

（五）回味。当您有个机会品尝过葡萄酒后，好好坐着一会儿并回味所品的酒。想想看您方才的体验再问问您自个儿下面问题以协助您加深印象。酒是否：

⊙ 清淡，中度浓郁，或浓郁？

⊙ 白酒：酸度如何？极少，正好，或太酸？

⊙ 红酒：单宁太强或太涩？令人感到愉快吗？或没有单宁了？

⊙ 余味持续多久？

⊙ 最重要是您喜不喜欢这瓶酒？

⊙ 价钱值得吗？

此处又衍生出另一个重点。当您品尝一种酒后第一件事是您是否喜欢它，它是您想要的酒吗？

再来说说传统的品酒知道。

第一步：酒温 冰镇后红酒味道较涩。

传统上，饮用红酒的温度是清凉室温，18至21摄氏度之间，在这温度下，各种年份的红酒都在最佳状态下。一瓶经过冰镇的红酒，比清凉室温下的红酒丹宁特性会更为显著，因而味道较涩。

第二步：醒酒 红酒充分氧化后才够香。

一瓶佳酿通常是尘封多年的，刚刚打开时会有异味出现，这时就需要“唤醒”这支酒，在将酒倒入精美的醒酒器后稍待十分钟，酒的异味散去，醒酒器一般要求让酒和空气的接触面最大，红酒充分氧化之后，浓郁的香味就流露出来了。

第三步：观酒 陈年佳酿的酒边呈棕色。

红酒的那种红色足以撩人心扉，红酒斟酒时以酒杯横置，酒不溢出为基本要求。在光线充足的情况下将红酒杯横置在白纸上，观看红酒的边缘就能判断出酒的年龄。层次分明者多是新酒，颜色均匀的是有点岁数了，如果微微呈棕色，那有可能碰到了一瓶陈年佳酿。

第四步：饮酒 让它在口腔内多留片刻。

在酒入口之前，先深深在酒杯里嗅一下，此时已能领会到红酒的幽香，再吞入一口红酒，让红酒在口腔内多停留片刻，舌头上打两个滚，使感官充分体验红酒，最后全部咽下，一股幽香立即萦绕其中。

第五步：酒序 先尝新酒再尝陈酒。

一次品酒聚会通常会品尝两三支以上的红酒，以期达到对比的效果。喝酒时应按照新在先陈在后、淡在先浓在后的原则。这还有些高人的指点以及和人讨论的心得首先,好的红酒先从外观上看,色调越浅的越好.这和白葡萄酒相反.不能有沉淀物在里面.其沉淀物多为葡萄的外皮,不好.。

其次,好红酒入杯后慢慢摇动,在杯壁会有少许红酒,我们称为挂杯.。

三,红酒需用专门的弧型杯,在鼻前慢慢晃动,酒香会随杯壁往上,慢慢入鼻.这时就已经开始品红酒了.。

四,红酒入口后,先用舌尖品,好的是酸中带甜,少苦味.。

五,再用舌头把红酒挤向口的二侧,用舌头的二侧品味,这时候,酒的味道就更能显露.。

一瓶葡萄酒放入冰箱后，经过1小时，酒温便会下降10ºC，一般只要将红葡萄酒放入冰箱1小时，酒温就会降至20ºC以下。假如忘记了红葡萄酒在电冰箱内存放了多久，也不用担心，只要将红葡萄酒取出，开启并倒入杯中，隔30分钟左右，该红葡萄酒的温度便约为20ºC，即我们所指的“室温”。白葡萄酒放入电冰箱中2小时或装有冰水的酒桶中20分钟便足够。

第二个问题：

如果不是豆科的蔬菜，则一般是根瘤线虫形成的虫瘿造成的。我们这里葡萄上也非常多。

利 用 拮 抗 植 物 防 治 线 虫 的机 理。

壤添加物防治南方根瘤线虫之探讨－种植瓮菜(Ipomoea reptans)前若先植纹瓣大波斯菊（Cosmos bipinnatus (F190) ），天人菊（Gaillardia pulchella）, 万寿菊（Tagetes erecta）, 五爪金英（Tithonia diversifolia）或百日草（Zinnia elegans (F645) ），可以降低瓮菜上南方根瘤线虫二龄幼虫及根系上产生根瘤的数目。利用天人菊的根、茎、叶制成之土壤添加物亦可有效地控制南方根瘤线虫在瓮菜上的族群数目。天人菊之根部分泌物可直接毒害南方根瘤线虫之二龄幼虫，当浓度高於250ppm时亦可抑制线虫卵的孵化。天人菊可作为正作之植前植物、间作植物或土壤添加物来防治南方根瘤线虫。

存在於地球上之线虫(nematode)，估计约 8-10 万至 100 万种；其中 2 万种已有鉴定记录。15% 寄生於动物上，50% 生存於海水中；植物寄生性线虫种类仅占 10%，其余 25% 则栖身淡水及土壤中。随著科技之进步，线虫种属之判明有更深入的推演；1941 年时仅知植物寄生性线虫有 19 属 185 种，至 1990 年时已增至 207 属 4832 种 。Yeates 等人就其摄食对象 (如植物、真菌菌丝、细菌、基层物质、动物、真核单细胞生物、游移或寄生状态之寄生虫及杂食等) 整理出 12 目、95 科、333 属等分类层次。

线虫为两侧对称，体型无色或半透明之圆形动物，典型的体型呈纺锤形。少数种类为雌雄异型，雌虫为柠檬型、梨型或肾藏型等。植物线虫之体长约0.5至10mm，依种类而异，雄虫通常较雌虫小。植物寄生性线虫之口腔具有明显且可自由伸缩之口针，藉以穿刺植物细胞，其内中空，为食物进入之孔道。口针后方衔接食道(esophagus)，其形状和构造则因线虫种类取食特性不同而有差异。大多数植物寄生性线虫有卵和精子交配情形，受精后产生后代。少数行孤雌生殖，即卵不经受精作用而能发育者，在这些线虫族群中，没有或少有雄虫。某些种类线虫完全进入植物根部取食，并於根内成熟、产卵进而为害植物，谓之内寄生性线虫(endoparasites)。有些线虫以虫体前半部侵入寄主植物的根，而很少完全进入寄主根部，谓之半内寄生性线虫(semi-endoparasites)。许多线虫取食时，虫体并未进入植物根内，仅以口针刺吸植物根部细胞，谓之外寄生性线虫(ectoparasites)。

据估计世界主要作物因受植物寄生性线虫为害之平均年产量损失率为12.3%，约为1000亿美元。高度有效之线虫防治对每一个国家而言颇具实质重要性，且直接关系到农民之损益，尤其对花卉、蔬菜、果树及其他特定作物等产量影响甚钜，种植者每年平均耗费美金二十二亿五仟万元之杀线虫剂费用在这些作物的线虫病害防治上。

根癌病又成冠瘿病，根头癌舯病，是一种有根癌土壤杆菌引起的细菌性病害，世界性发生。据报道，该病原菌可侵染600多种植物，除危害樱桃、桃、苹果、梨和葡萄外，还能侵害李、杏、海棠、山楂、核桃、毛白杨、樱花、月季和玫瑰等果树、树木和花卉，甚至瓜类。

病菌从伤口侵入后，将自身的一段基因转移、整合进植物细胞基因组，其中生长素和细胞分裂素合成基因的表达导致细胞内激素失衡，细胞过度增殖形成肿瘤。肿瘤常在根茎部形成，在嫁接处也教为常见。发病植株矮小，叶片早衰。盛国期树受害，果实小，树龄缩短，甚至死亡。我国的辽宁、吉林、河北、北京、内蒙古、山西、河南、山东、湖北、陕西、甘肃、安徽、江苏、伤害和浙江等省（区）都有根癌病的分布、为害，在是恒产中造成了重大的经济损失。

由于致病机制特殊，应用一般化学药剂防治根癌病，效果十分有限，不能、解决生产中的实际问题。对于根癌病的防治，应贯彻“预防为主，综合防治”的方针。加强检疫，避免采用带菌（瘤）种苗避免连作、重茬等都是有效的预防措施；但是，更重要的是在种苗移栽、定植之前，用“抗根瘤菌剂”生防制剂对根系进行保护处理。一旦发生 根瘤病，再用化学农药治疗，基本无效。

樱桃根瘤病及其防治

（1） 症状及发病规律

主要为害根颈部接穗和木的接合处，有时也为害主根；初发期，被害处形成灰白色的小型瘤状物，以后瘤体逐渐长大，表面变为褐色，表面粗糙、龟裂，表层细胞枯死，内部木质化。发病后，植株物体矮小，树势衰弱、叶片黄化、早落，结果晚、果实小。

病菌能在土壤中长期生存，可由嫁接伤口、虫害伤口入侵，一般经3个月表现症状。土壤和病株的病菌通过雨水、灌溉及修剪扩散传播。

（2） 防治方法

A、 选用抗根瘤病的 木：马哈利樱桃、中国樱桃、酸樱桃抗病性相对较强，甜樱桃抗病性较弱发病严重。

B、 调运苗木必须进行检疫，避免采用带菌（瘤）种苗，避免重茬。

C、 发病重的苗木或大树，坚决刨除烧掉。

D、 生物防治：用“抗根瘤菌剂I号”或“抗根瘤菌剂III号”进行预防保护，防治效果可达到95%以上。

使用方法：

1) 拌种催芽：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调均拌（浸）种，或直接用菌剂覆盖种子催芽。

2) 沾根：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调匀，在种苗移栽、定植之前沾根20分钟。有瘤子的种苗要先剪掉瘤子及附近组织，然后沾根。

3) 刮瘤涂抹：已定植的植株如果发现有瘤，要先刮掉瘤子及附近组织，然后涂抹菌剂保护伤口。

3．桃树根瘤病及其防治

（1） 病害分布及危害

我国的桃产区都有分布，既发生于大树果园，也出现在苗圃，但对生产的损失以后者为重。发病严重时，苗木出圃时的病株率可高达90%左右。

（2） 发病症状及发病规律

在根颈部，有时也在侧根和支根上形成大小不一癌瘤，表面粗糙、凸凹不平。植株受害后，生长缓慢、树势衰弱，渐至死亡。一般碱性土、粘性土、排水不良时发病重。病原细菌存活于癌瘤组织中或土壤中，可随雨水径流或灌溉水及带病苗木传播，通过伤口侵入。碱性土壤有利于发病，重茬菌圃及重茬桃园容易发病。

（3） 防止方法

苗圃及桃园尽量避免重茬连作。

加强检疫，苗木出圃时严格剔除病苗，新建桃园要防止用病苗。

加强管理，合理施肥，改良土壤，增强树势。

生物防治：用“抗根瘤菌剂I号”或“抗根瘤菌剂III号”进行预防保护，防治效果可达到95%以上。

使用方法：

A、拌种催芽：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调均拌（浸）种，或直接用菌剂覆盖种子催芽。

B、沾根：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调匀，在种苗移栽、定植之前沾根20分钟。有瘤子的种苗要先剪掉瘤子及附近组织，然后沾根。

C、刮瘤涂抹：已定植的植株如果发现有瘤，要先刮掉瘤子及附近组织，然后涂抹菌剂保护伤口。

4．李树根瘤病及其防治

（1） 病害分布及危害

在我国北方发生较普遍。根部受害后地上部生长缓慢、植株矮小，严重时叶片变黄、早落，枝梢衰弱甚至枯死。

（2） 症状表现及发病规律

在根颈部，主根及侧根上，个别的在地面以上形成癌瘤，褐色或深褐色，坚硬，表面粗糙、龟裂或凸凹不平，后期腐朽。

病菌在癌瘤的皮层内和土中的残体上越冬。可借雨水、灌溉水进行传播。带病菌木是远距离传播的主要途径。病菌自伤口侵入，在土壤潮湿温暖的条件下，或碱性土壤、地下害虫和嫁接造成的伤口多，均有利于发病。

（3） 防治方法

苗圃及果园尽量避免重茬连作。

加强检疫，苗木出圃时严格剔除病苗，新建桃园要防止用病苗。

加强管理，合理施肥，改良土壤，增强树势。

生物防治：用“抗根瘤菌剂I号”或“抗根瘤菌剂III号”进行预防保护，防治效果可达到95%以上。

使用方法：

A、拌种催芽：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调均拌（浸）种，或直接用菌剂覆盖种子催芽。

B、沾根：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调匀，在种苗移栽、定植之前沾根20分钟。有瘤子的种苗要先剪掉瘤子及附近组织，然后沾根。

C、刮瘤涂抹：已定植的植株如果发现有瘤，要先刮掉瘤子及附近组织，然后涂抹菌剂保护伤口。

4．李树根瘤病及其防治

（1） 病害分布及危害

在我国北方发生较普遍。根部受害后地上部生长缓慢、植株矮小，严重时叶片变黄、早落，枝梢衰弱甚至枯死。

（2） 症状表现及发病规律

在根颈部，主根及侧根上，个别的在地面以上形成癌瘤，褐色或深褐色，坚硬，表面粗糙、龟裂或凸凹不平，后期腐朽。

病菌在癌瘤的皮层内和土中的残体上越冬。可借雨水、灌溉水进行传播。带病菌木是远距离传播的主要途径。病菌自伤口侵入，在土壤潮湿温暖的条件下，或碱性土壤、地下害虫和嫁接造成的伤口多，均有利于发病。

（3） 防治方法

苗圃及果园尽量避免重茬连作。

加强检疫，苗木出圃时严格剔除病苗，新建桃园要防止用病苗。

加强管理，合理施肥，改良土壤，增强树势。

生物防治：用“抗根瘤菌剂I号”或“抗根瘤菌剂III号”进行预防保护，防治效果可达到95%以上。

5．杏树根瘤病及其防治

（1）症状表现及危害

在根、根颈和茎部形成癌瘤，通常主根上癌瘤最多，有的分散于整个根系上。发病植株由于根部发生癌变，水分、养分吸收疏导受阻，地上部生长发缓慢，树势衰弱，叶薄，色黄，细瘦，严重时整株萎蔫干枯死亡。

（2） 发病规律

病菌在肿瘤和土壤中越冬。病菌侵染开始于种子萌发阶段，也可侵染受伤的根系，主要从嫁接口、虫伤、机械伤及气孔侵入根部。雨水、灌溉水、地下害虫、线虫等都会传播，苗木带菌是远距离传播的主要途径。（4） 防治方法。

苗圃及果园尽量避免重茬连作。

加强检疫，苗木出圃时严格剔除病苗，新建桃园要防止用病苗。

加强管理，合理施肥，改良土壤，增强树势。

生物防治：用“抗根瘤菌剂I号”或“抗根瘤菌剂III号”进行预防保护，防治效果可达到95%以上。

使用方法：

A、拌种催芽：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调均拌（浸）种，或直接用菌剂覆盖种子催芽。

B、沾根：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调匀，在种苗移栽、定植之前沾根20分钟。有瘤子的种苗要先剪掉瘤子及附近组织，然后沾根。

C、刮瘤涂抹：已定植的植株如果发现有瘤，要先刮掉瘤子及附近组织，然后涂抹菌剂保护伤口。

6．苹果根癌病及其防治

（1）分布和危害

我国长江以北的各省普遍发生，偏碱性土壤地区发生更普遍。在园中一般是零星发生，偶有成片发生的。主要为害根颈部，也为害侧根和细支根，造成根系发育不足，使植株地上部表现为发育迟缓，生长势弱，新梢短小，但一般不直接造成植株死亡。为害幼苗可能造成植株死亡。

（2）症状及发病规律

主要危害苹果植株根颈部位，在其上形成褶皱的瘤状物，多是因为苗木带菌引起的。病菌在病残体或土壤中越冬；主要通过雨水或土壤等传播，通过伤口侵染。

（3）防治方法

苗圃忌长期连年育苗；重病苗圃地3年之内不作育苗基地。

加强检疫，苗木出圃时严格剔除病苗，新建果园要防止用病苗。

加强管理，发病苗圃地宜用芽接法，少用或不用根枝嫁接。

生物防治：用“抗根瘤菌剂I号”或“抗根瘤菌剂III号”进行预防保护，防治效果可达到95%以上。

使用方法：

A、拌种催芽：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调均拌（浸）种，或直接用菌剂覆盖种子催芽。

B、沾根：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调匀，在种苗移栽、定植之前沾根20分钟。有瘤子的种苗要先剪掉瘤子及附近组织，然后沾根。

C、刮瘤涂抹：已定植的植株如果发现有瘤，要先刮掉瘤子及附近组织，然后涂抹菌剂保护伤口。

7。梨树根瘤病及其防治

（1）分布和危害

长江以北各省普遍发生，偏碱性土壤地区发生更普遍。在园中一般是零星发生，偶有成片发生的。主要为害根颈部，也为害侧根和细支根，造成根系发育不足，使植株地上部表现为发育迟缓，生长势弱，新梢短小，但一般不直接造成植株死亡。为害幼苗可能造成植株死亡。

（2）症状及发病规律

主要危害植株根颈部位，在其上形成褶皱的瘤状物，多是因为苗木带菌引起的。病菌在病残体或土壤中越冬；主要通过雨水或土壤等传播，通过伤口侵染。

（3）防治方法

苗圃忌长期连年育苗；重病苗圃地3年之内不作育苗基地。

加强检疫，苗木出圃时严格剔除病苗，新建果园要防止用病苗。

加强管理，发病苗圃地宜用芽接法，少用或不用根枝嫁接。

生物防治：用“抗根瘤菌剂I号”或“抗根瘤菌剂III号”进行预防保护，防治效果可达到95%以上。

使用方法：

A、拌种催芽：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调均拌（浸）种，或直接用菌剂覆盖种子催芽。

B、沾根：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调匀，在种苗移栽、定植之前沾根20分钟。有瘤子的种苗要先剪掉瘤子及附近组织，然后沾根。

C、刮瘤涂抹：已定植的植株如果发现有瘤，要先刮掉瘤子及附近组织，然后涂抹菌剂保护伤口。

8 、葡萄根癌病及其防治

（ 1 ）病害分布及危害

东北、华北、西北、黄河及长江流域的许多省市区都有发生，北方地区发病严重。对内蒙古、华北、东北、新疆等地的扑要园的调查，发现病株率一般为 30%---50% ，最高达 90% 以上，毁园、绝收。

（2）症状与发病规律

5月上旬开始发病，在根茎及根部形成似愈伤组织状瘤、呈绿色，瘤渐渐长大，顶破 层并木质化，呈深褐色。受害杆株树势弱，叶片小，坐果率低，果穗小，果粒稀疏。7、8月份为发病高峰期。蔓部发病严重时，病部以上部分死亡；根部发病严重时，整株死亡。弱树容易发病。剪口、冻伤口、机械伤口等各种伤口易引发病害。病菌靠雨水、灌溉水传播。苗木带菌是远距离传播的主要途径。

（3）防治方法

① 利用抗性砧木：选用搞根癌病和抗寒砧木作葡萄砧木。

② 加强检疫，种植无病苗木。

③ 避名葡萄冻害；尽量避免人为造成伤口。

④ 生物防治：用“抗根癌菌剂II号”进行预防保护，防治效果可达到75%以上。

使用方法：

A、 沾根：将菌剂加工1-2倍水后调匀，在种苗、插条移栽、定植之前沾根 20分钟。有瘤子的种苗要先剪掉瘤子，然后沾根。

B、 刮瘤涂抹：已定植的植株如果发现有瘤，要先刮掉瘤子及附近组织，然后涂抹菌剂保护伤口。

9．花卉根癌病及其防治

（1）蔷薇科花卉根癌病

A．分布及危害

主要危害樱花、月季、玫瑰、蔷薇、梅花和秋海棠等蔷薇科花卉。病树树势弱，生长迟缓，寿命缩短，影响苗圃苗木的质量和公园树体的整齐度。重茬苗辅发病率在20%-100%之间不等，有的甚至造成毁园。

B．症状与发病规律

月季、樱花等主要发生在根劲处，也可发生在主根、侧根以及地上部的主干和侧枝上。形成大小不一的肿瘤，初期幼嫩，后期木质化，严重时整个主根变成一个大瘤子。病菌可在瘤内或土壤中病株残体上长时间存活，从植株的伤口侵入，主要靠灌水和雨水、插条、耕作农具、地下害虫等传播，随苗木的调运进行远距离传播，是土传、苗传的病害。偏碱性、湿度大的沙壤土发病率较高。连作有利于病害的发生，苗木根部伤口多，发病重。

C．防治方法

① 加强检疫，种植无病苗木。

② 利用抗性砧木。

③ 生物防治：用“抗根癌菌剂III号”预防保护，效果达95%以上。

使用方法：

a. 沾根：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调匀，在种苗、插条移栽、定植之前沾根20分钟。有瘤子的种苗要先剪掉瘤子，然后沾根。

b. 刮瘤涂抹：已定植的植株如果发现有瘤子，先刮掉瘤子，然后涂抹菌剂保护伤口。

（2）菊花根癌病

A． 症状及危害

在茎基部和根上发生大肿瘤，初期幼嫩，后期木质化。受侵染植株生长不良、矮化。病菌可在病瘤内或土壤中越冬，从伤口侵入（虫伤、机械伤，嫁接伤口），可随苗木调节调运进行远距离传播。偏碱性、湿度大的土壤发病率较高。

B．防治方法

① 利用种子繁殖，减少侵染机会。

② 加强检疫，种植无病苗木。

③ 生物防治：用“抗根癌菌剂III号”预防保护。

使用方法：

a.沾根：将菌剂加1-2倍水后调匀，在种苗、插条移栽、定植之前沾根20分钟。有瘤子的种苗要先剪掉瘤子，然后沾根。

b.刮瘤涂抹：已定植的植株如果发现有瘤子，先刮掉瘤子，然后涂抹菌剂保护伤口。

(3)大丽花根癌病

A． 症状及危害 。

在茎基部和根上发生大肿瘤，初期幼嫩，后期木质化。受侵染植株生长停滞、矮化。病菌可在病瘤内或土壤中越冬，从伤口侵入（虫伤、机械伤，嫁接伤口），可随苗木调节调运进行远距离传播。偏碱性、湿度大的土壤发病率较高。

B.防治方法

① 利用种子繁殖，建立无病瘤种圃。

② 加强检疫，种植无病苗木。

③ 生物防治：用“抗根癌菌剂III号”沾根或刮瘤涂抹进行保护。

（4）香石竹（康乃馨）根癌病

A．症状及危害

在茎基部和根上发生大肿瘤，初期幼嫩，后期木质化。受侵染植株生长停滞、矮化。病菌可在病瘤内或土壤中越冬，从伤口侵入（虫伤、机械伤，嫁接伤口），可随苗木调节调运进行远距离传播。

B.防治方法

① 用种子繁殖，建立无病瘤种圃。

② 加强检疫，种植无病苗木。

③ 生物防治：用“抗根癌菌剂III号”沾根或刮瘤涂抹进行保护。

（5）天竺葵根癌病

A．症状及危害

在茎基部和根上发生大肿瘤，初期幼嫩，后期木质化。受侵染植株生长停滞、矮化。病菌可在病瘤内或土壤中越冬，从伤口侵入，可随苗木调节调运进行远距离传播。

B.防治方法

① 利用种子繁殖，种植无病苗。

心脏的英文简介

总论[Introduction]。

•superior[上]

•inferior[下]

•Cranial[头侧]

•Caudal[尾侧]

•anterior[前]

•posterior[后]

•ventral[腹侧]

•dorsal[背侧]

•medial[内侧]

•lateral[外侧]

•internal[内]

•external[外]

•superficial[浅]。

•profundal[深]

•proximal[近侧]

•distal[远侧]

•ulnar[尺侧]

•radial[桡侧]

•tibial[胫侧]

•fibular[腓侧]

2、运动系统[locomotor (kinetic) system]。

•vertebrae[椎骨]

•cervical vevtebrae[颈椎]。

•thoracic vertebrae[胸椎]。

•lumbar vertebrae[腰椎]。

•sacrum[骶骨]

•sternum[胸骨]

•rib[肋骨]

•thoracic cage[胸廓]。

•skull[颅]

•frontal bone[额骨]。

•parietal bone[顶骨]。

•occipital bone[枕骨]。

•temporal bone[颞骨]。

•sphenoid bone[蝶骨]。

•ethmoid bone[筛骨]。

•mandible (submaxilla)[下颌骨]。

•maxilla (supermaxilla)[上颌骨]。

•nasal bone[鼻骨]。

•coronal (sagital, lambdoid) suture [冠状（矢状，人字）缝]。

•orbit[眶]

•clavicle[锁骨]

•scapula (shoulder blade)[肩胛骨]。

•sternum (breast bone)[胸骨]。

•manubrium sterni (presternum)[胸骨柄]。

•midsternum[胸骨体]。

•xiphoid[剑突]

•humerus[肱骨]

•radius[桡骨]

•ulna[尺骨]

•carpal bone[腕骨]。

•metacarpal bone [掌骨]。

•phalanges[指(趾)骨]。

•hip bone[髋骨]

•ilium[髂骨]

•ischium [坐骨]

•pubis[耻骨]

•femur [股骨]

•patella[髌骨]

•tibia[胫骨]

•fibula [腓骨]

•articulation[关节]。

•ligament[韧带]

•flexion[屈]

•extension[伸]

•adduction[收]

•abduction[展]

•medial rotation[旋内]。

•lateral rotation[旋外]。

•pronation[旋前]

•supination[旋后]。

•circumductoin[环转]。

•vertebral column[脊柱]。

•intervertebral disc[椎间盘]。

•temporal-mandibular joint[颞下颌关节]。

•shoulder joint[肩关节]。

•elbow joint[肘关节]。

•radiocarpal joint[肩关节]。

•radiocarpal joint[桡腕关节]。

•pelvis[骨盆]

•hip joint[髋关节]。

•knee joint[膝关节]。

•ankle joint[踝关节]。

•muscle [肌肉]

•tendon[肌腱]

•fascia[筋膜]

•tendinous sheath[腱鞘]。

•trapezius[斜方肌]。

•latissimus dorsi[背阔肌]。

•sternocleidomastoid[胸锁乳突的]。

•scalenus [斜角肌]。

•pectoralis major[胸大肌]。

•intercostales[肋间肌]。

•diaphragm[膈肌]

•inguinal canal[腹股沟管]。

•masseter[咬肌]

•temporalis[颞肌]。

•deltoid[三角肌]

•biceps brachii[肱二头肌]。

•triceps brachii[肱三头肌]。

•axillary fossa [腑窝]。

•gluteus maximus[臀大肌]。

•piriformis[梨状肌]。

•sartorius[缝匠肌]。

•quadriceps femoris[股四头肌]。

•triceps surae[小腿三头肌]。

•femoral triangle[股三角]。

3、内脏[Viscera]

•viscera[内脏]

•oral cavity[口腔]。

•lip[唇]

•cheek[颊]

•palate[腭]

•tooth[牙]

•dentes[牙]

•tongue[舌]

•parotid gland[腮腺]。

•pharynx[咽]

•esophagus[食管]

•stomach gaster[胃]。

•duodenum[十二指肠]。

•jejunum[空肠]

•ileum [回肠]

•large intestine[大肠]。

•caecum[盲肠]

•vermiform (appendix)[阑尾]。

•colon[结肠]

•rectum[直肠]

•anal canal[肛管]。

•dentate line[齿状线]。

•anus[肛门]

•liver (hepar)[肝]。

•porta hepatis[肝门]。

•gallblader[胆囊]。

•pancreas[胰]

•nose[鼻]

•nasal cavity[鼻腔]。

•paranasal sinus[鼻旁窦]。

•larynx[喉]

•laryngeal cavity[喉腔]。

•vocal cord[声带]。

•trachea[气管]

•bronchi[支气管]

•lung [肺]

•pulmonary[肺的]

•pleura[胸膜]

•mediastinum[纵隔]。

•kidney[肾]

•renal pilvis[肾盂]。

•ureter[输尿管]

•urinary bladder[膀胱]。

•urethra[尿道]

•testis[睾丸]

•epididymis[附睾]。

•ductus deferens[输精管]。

•spermatic cord[精索]。

•prostate[前列腺]

•scrotum[阴囊]

•penis[阴茎]

•ovary[卵巢]

•uterine tube[输卵管]。

•uterus[子宫]

•vagina[阴道]

•clitoris[阴蒂]

•mamma (breast)[乳房]。

•mammary papilla (nipple)[乳头]。

•perineum[会阴]

•pelvic diaphragm[盆膈]。

•peritoneum[腹膜]。

•omentum[网膜]

4、心血管系统[Cardiovascular system]。

•heart[心]

•artery[动脉]

•vein[静脉]

•capillary[毛细血管]。

•atrium[心房]

•ventricle[心室]

•tricuspid valve[三尖瓣]。

•bicuspid valve[二尖瓣]。

•aortic valve[主动脉瓣]。

•pulmonary valve[肺动脉瓣]。

•sinuatrial node[窦房结]。

•atrioventricular node[房室结]。

•atrioventricular bundle[房室束]。

•right/left bundle branch[右/左束支]。

•coronary artery[冠状动脉]。

•coronary sinus[冠状窦]。

•pericardium[心包]。

•aorta[主动脉]

•innominate artery[无名动脉(头臂干)]。

•common carotid artery[颈总动脉]。

•carotid sinus [颈动脉窦]。

•internal(external) carotid artery[颈内(外)动脉]。

•facial artery[面动脉]。

•subclavian artery[锁骨下动脉]。

•mesenteric artery[肠系膜动脉]。

•common iliac artery[髂总动脉]。

•popliteal artery [腘动脉]。

•vena cava [腔静脉]。

•internal jugular vein[颈内静脉]。

•cephalic vein[头静脉]。

•basilic vein[贵要静脉]。

•saphenous vein[隐静脉]。

•lymphatic duct[淋巴导管]。

•thoracic duct[胸导管]。

•lymph node[淋巴结]。

•spleen[脾]

•thymus[胸腺]

5、感觉器[sense organs]。

•sensory organ[感觉器]。

•receptor[感受器]

•visual organ[视器]。

•eyeball [眼球]

•cornea[角膜]

•sclera[巩膜]

•choroid [脉络膜]

•ciliary body[睫状体]。

•iris[虹膜]

•retina[视网膜]

•optic disc[视神经盘]。

•macula lutea[黄斑]。

•aqueous humor[房水]。

•lens[晶状体]

•vitreous body[玻璃体]。

•eyelid [眼睑]

•conjunctiva[结膜]。

•lacrimal gland[泪腺]。

•vestibulocochlear organ[前庭蜗器]。

•ear( auris) [耳]。

•auricle[耳廓]

•acoustic meatus[耳道]。

•tympanic cavity[鼓室]。

•tympanic membrane[鼓膜]。

•pharyngotympanic tube [咽鼓管]。

•bony(membranous) labyrinth[骨(膜)迷路]。

•vestibule [前庭]。

•semicircular canal[半规管]。

•cochlea[耳蜗]

•cochlear duct[蜗管]。

•olfactory organ[嗅器]。

•gustatory organ[味器]。

•taste bud[味蕾]

•skin[皮肤]

6、神经系统[Nervous system]。

•central nervous system[中枢神经系统]。

•peripheral nervous system[周围神经系统]。

•visceral nerve[内脏神经]。

•afferent nerve[传入神经]。

•efferent nerve[传出神经]。

•neuron[神经元]

•axon [轴突]

•dendrite[树突]

•glia [神经胶质]

•gray matter [灰质]。

•white matter[白质]。

•cortex[皮质]

•madulla[髓质]

•nucleus[神经质]

•ganglion[神经节]

•fasciculus[神经束]。

•nerve[神经]

•spinal nerve[脊神经]。

•cervical plexus[颈丛]。

•brachial plexus[臂丛]。

•lumbar plexus[腰丛]。

•sacral plexus [骶丛]。

•phrenic nerve[膈神经]。

•median nerve[正中神经]。

•ulnar nerve[尺神经]。

•radial nerve[桡神经]。

•femoral nerve[股神经]。

•ischiatic nerve[坐骨神经]。

•common peroneal nerve[腓总神经]。

•cranial nerve[颅(脑)神经]。

•olfactory nerve[嗅神经]。

•optic nerve[视神经]。

•oculomotor nerve[动眼神经]。

•trochlear nerve[滑车神经]。

•trigeminal verve[三叉神经]。

•abducent nerve[展神经]。

•facial nerve[面神经]。

•vestibulocochlear nerve[前庭蜗神经]。

•glossopharyngeal nerve[舌咽神经]。

•vagus nerve[迷走神经]。

•accessary nerve[副神经]。

•hypoglossal nerve[舌下神经]。

•autonomic nervous system[自主神经]。

•vegetative nervous system[植物神经]。

•sympathetic nerve[交感神经]。

•parasympathetic nerve[副交感神经]。

•spinal cord[脊髓]。

•encephalon (brain)[脑]。

•brain stem[脑干]。

•medulla oblongata[延髓]。

•pons [脑桥]

•mesencephalon[中脑]。

•midbrain[中脑]

•cerebellum[小脑]。

•diencephalon[间脑]。

•thalamus[丘脑]

•hypothalamus[下丘脑]。

•hypophysis[垂体]。

•telencephalon[端脑]。

•cerebrum[大脑]

•cerebral cortex[大脑皮质]。

•corpus striatum[纹状体]。

•internal capsule[内囊]。

•spinothalamic tract[皮质脊髓束]。

•medial lemniscus[内侧丘系]。

•lateral lemniscus[外侧丘系]。

•spinal lemniscus[脊髓丘系]。

•trigeminal lemniscus[三叉丘系]。

7、体表标记[Anatomic marks]。

•naso-labial groove[鼻唇沟]。

•suprasternal fossa[胸骨上窝]。

•supraclavicular fossa[锁骨上窝]。

•infraclavicular fossa[锁骨下窝]。

•armpit (axillary fossa)[腋窝]。

•midsternal (midian) line[胸骨中线（正中线）]。

•anterior midian line[前正中线]。

•parasternal line[胸骨旁线]。

•midclavicular line[锁骨中线]。

•mammillary (nipple, milk) line[乳线]。

•posterior (mid-, anterior) axillary line[腋后（中，前）线]。

•scapular line[肩胛线]。

•midspinal line[脊柱中线]。

•dorsomedian line[后正中线]。

•linea paravertebralis [脊椎旁线]。

•the left (right) upper abdomen (quadrant)[左（右）上腹]。

•epigastrium[上腹部]。

•the middle abdomen[中腹部]。

•the lower abdomen[下腹部]。

•linea pararectalis[腹直肌旁线]。

•anterior superior spine[髂前上棘]。

•symphysis pubis (symphysion)[耻骨联合]。

•ischial tuberosity[坐骨结节]。

•groin (inguen)[腹股沟]。

•popliteal fossa[腘窝]。

•upper extremity(limb)[上肢]。

•lower extremity(limb)[下肢]。

•posterior superior spine[髂后上嵴]。

•anterior (dorsal) part of chest(前（后）胸部)。

•scapular region[肩胛区]。

•anterior (posterior) fontanelle[前（后）囱]。

心脏简介 heart

器官简介：心脏为人和脊椎动物器官之一。是循环系统中的动力。人的心脏如本人的拳头，外形像桃子，位于横膈之上，两肺间而偏左。主要由心肌构成，有左心房、左心室、右心房、右心室四个腔。左右心房之间和左右心室之间均由间隔隔开，故互不相通，心房与心室之间有瓣膜，这些瓣膜使血液只能由心房流入心室，而不能倒流。

词语解释：心脏也比喻中心，如“首都北京是祖国的心脏”。

Organ synopsis: One of heart manner and vertebrate organs. Is in circulatory system's power. Human's heart like myself fist, contour likely peach, located at horizontal diaphragm above, between two lungs, but left. Mainly constitutes by the cardiac muscle, has the left atrium, the left ventricle, the right atrium, the right ventricle four cavities. About between the atrium and about between the ventricle separates by the gap, therefore is not interlinked mutually, between the atrium and the ventricle has the valve, these valves enable the blood only to flow in the ventricle by the atrium, but cannot flow backwards. the words and expressions explained: The heart also analogies the center, like “capital Beijing is the motherland heart”. 。

器官部位：心脏位于胸腔内，膈肌的上方，二肺之间，约三分之二在中线左侧。心脏如一倒置的，前后略扁的圆锥体像一个桃子。心尖钝圆，朝向左前下方，与胸前壁邻近，其体表投影在左胸前壁第五肋间隙锁骨中线内侧1-2cm处，故在此处可看到或摸到心尖搏动。心底较宽，有大血管由此出入，朝向右后上方，与食管等后纵隔的器官相邻 。

Organ parts: heart in the chest, above the diaphragm, the lungs, and about two-thirds of the center line in the left side. If a heart inverted, slightly before and after Chen Shui-bian of the cone like a peach. Apex blunt yen, towards the bottom left, and the front wall nearby, its surface projection in the fifth Lei Jianxi Zuoxiong anterior midline medial clavicular 1-2 cm, it can be seen here and reached the apex or throb. The bottom of my heart wide, have access to this great vessels, right after North Korea at the top, and esophagus, and other adjacent organs after mediastinal 。

基本结构：心脏表面靠近心底处，有横位的冠状沟几乎环绕心脏一周，仅在前面被主动脉及肺动脉的起始部所中断。沟以上为左、右心房，沟以下为左、右心室。在心室的前面及后（下）面各有一纵行的浅沟，由冠状沟伸向心尖稍右方，分别称前后室间沟，为左、右心室的表面分界。左心房、左心室和右心房、右心室的正常位置关系呈现轻度由右向左扭转现象，即右心偏于右前上方，左心偏于左后下方。 心脏是一中空的肌性器官，内有四腔：后上部为左心房、右心房，二者之间有房间隔分隔；前下部为左心室、右心室，二者间隔以室间隔。正常情况下，因房、室间隔的分隔，左半心与右半心不直接交通，但每个心房可经房室口通向同侧心 。

室。右心房壁较薄。根据血流方向，右心房有三个入口，一个出口。入口即上、下腔静脉口和冠状窦口。冠状窦口为心壁静脉血回心的主要入口。出口即右房室口，右心房借助其通向右心室。房间隔后下部的卵圆形凹陷称卵圆窝，为胚胎时期连通左、右心房的卵圆孔闭锁后的遗迹。右心房上部向左前突出的部分称右心耳。 右心室有出入二口，入口即右房室口，其周缘附有三块叶片状瓣膜，称右房室瓣（即三尖瓣）。按位置分别称前瓣、后瓣、隔瓣。瓣膜垂向室腔，并借许多线样的腱索与心室壁上的乳头肌相连。出口称肺动脉口，其周缘有三个半月形瓣膜，称肺动脉瓣。

左心房构成心底的大部分，有四个入口，一个出口。在左心房后壁的两侧，各有一对肺静脉口，为左右肺静脉的入口；左心房的前下有左房室口，通向左心室。左心房前部向右前突出的部分，称左心耳。 左心室有出入二口。入口即左房室口，周缘附有左房室瓣（二尖瓣），按位置称前瓣、后瓣，它们亦有腱索分别与前、后乳头肌相连。出口为主动脉口，位于左房室口的右前上方，周缘附有半月形的主动脉瓣。

腔室 入口 入瓣膜 出口 瓣膜 作用 。

左心房 肺静脉 左房室口 二尖瓣 在心室收缩时阻止血液逆流回心房 。

左心室 左房室口 二尖瓣 主动脉口 主动脉瓣 在心室舒张时防止血液逆流回心室 。

右心房 上、下腔静脉 冠状窦口 右房室口 三尖瓣 在心室收缩时阻止血液逆流回心房 。

右心室 右房室口 三尖瓣 肺动脉口 肺动脉瓣 在心室舒张时防止血液逆流回心室 。

在右心房室和左心房室之间各有一组房室瓣，分别叫三尖瓣和二尖瓣。它们是单向瓣，允许血液从心房向心室流动，并防止其向反方向（即心室向心房）的流动。

血液流动方向为：上下腔静脉→右心房→右心室→肺动脉→肺循环→肺静脉→左心房→左心室→主动脉→体循环→上下腔静脉 。

Basic structure: the heart of the surface near the bottom of my heart, Wang Guan Zhuanggou almost around-the heart of the week, just in front of the aorta and pulmonary artery start interrupted by the Department. Ditch above the left and right atrium, ditch Following is the left and right ventricle. Ventricle in the front and after the (next) have a vertical surface of the Qiangou, Guan Zhuanggou reaching the apex slightly from the right, respectively, said that before and after the inter-ditch room for the left and right ventricle of the surface boundaries. The left atrium and left ventricle and the right atrium and right ventricle of the normal relations between the present location of mild to reverse the phenomenon from right to left, the right heart Pianyu front right at the top, left posterior left ventricular Pianyu below. The heart is a hollow muscular organ, with four-chamber: after the upper left atrium and right atrium, the interval between the two have separated; before the lower part of the left ventricle, right ventricle, the septum between the two. Under normal circumstances, due to room, separating the septum, left heart and mind are not directly in right traffic, but each atrium via AV mouth to the ipsilateral ventricle. 。

Right atrium wall thinner. Under the direction of blood flow, there are three right atrium entrance, exit. Entrance is on the inferior vena cava mouth and coronary sinus mouth. I coronary sinus blood for the heart wall Huixin the main entrance. Exports that right atrioventricular mouth, the right atrium with its right-ventricular. After the interval the lower part of the oval depression that oval Waterloo, for the embryonic period of connectivity left and right atrium of the oval hole after the remains closed. Turn left before the upper right atrium prominent part of that right atrial appendage. The right ventricle is different from two, the entrance is right atrioventricular mouth, with its three-week margin of leaf-like valves, said right Atrioventricular (Tricuspid). By location were said before the flap, flap, flap at. Room valve vertical cavity, and through many line with the kind of chordal ventricular wall muscle connected to the nipple. I said pulmonary exports, its fate has three weeks Ban Yuexing valve, said pulmonary valve. 。

The left atrium constitute the majority of the bottom of my heart, there are four entrance, exit. In the left atrium on both sides of the back wall, each with a pulmonary vein, the pulmonary vein around the entrance, the left atrium of the former heart I have left, to the left ventricle. The right front of the left atrium before the prominent part, said the left atrial appendage. Left ventricle is different from two. I left compartment that is imported, peripheral bearing left atrioventricular valve (mitral), said the position before the flap, flap, they also chordal with before and after the papillary muscle connected. Export-mouth aorta, left in the mouth right anterior compartment at the top, peripheral Ban Yuexing with the aortic valve. 。

Valve chamber entrance into the role of export valve 。

The left atrium pulmonary vein I left mitral valve in the heart ventricular systolic blood countercurrent to stop at the atrium 。

I left mitral valve left ventricular heart aortic valve in the aortic mouth when ventricular diastolic blood countercurrent to prevent ventricular 。

Right atrium, the inferior vena cava coronary sinus mouth right atrioventricular I ventricular contraction in the tricuspid valve to prevent blood countercurrent to atrial 。

The right ventricle right atrioventricular I tricuspid pulmonary valve in the pulmonary mouth when ventricular diastolic blood countercurrent to prevent ventricular 。

Room in the right atrium and left atrium between the rooms have a heart valve, were called tricuspid and mitral valve. They are one-way valve, allowing blood flow from the atrium to the ventricle and to prevent it from the opposite direction (that is, to atrial ventricular) flows. 。

Blood flow direction: from top to bottom IVC → right atrium → right ventricle pulmonary → → pulmonary circulation → pulmonary vein → left atrium → left ventricular → aortic → systemic → from top to bottom IVC。

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/92/Atrial_septal_defect-en.png。

原文地址：http://www.qianchusai.com/esophagus-70.html