contextualization-90
刘耀文的大沙雕
钟意阿满
什么叫语言学习策略?都有哪些分类?学习策略都与哪些因素有关?
(一)情景型语码转换和隐喻型语码转换理论。
Blom&Gumperz发现，人们在语言选择上有时并不一定符合当时语境的常规要求，这种偏听偏离引起听话者对另一种语境的联想，是一种隐喻式(Metaphorical)语码转换。[5]Gumperz和Blom于1972年探讨过语码转换的社会意义，将其区分为两种类型：情景型语码转换(Situationalcode-switching)和隐喻型语码转换(Metaphoricalcode-swiching)。[6]情景型语码转换指那些由于改变场合、时间、话题、参与者等因素而引发的语码转换。这类语码转换只能是一种语言或语言变体在某个特定的情景中使用，讲话人需要改变自己的语言来适应情景因素的改变从而最终维持讲话的合适性。如中国学生与外籍教师在英语口语练习课上的交谈。隐喻型语码转换则是指在情景不变的情况下，交际者为了表达一定的交际意图而实施的语码转换，如表示强调、引人注意，表示某种情感，传达某种信息等。本文研究基于汉语为母语聊天者在日常聊天中的记录，因此笔者只对网络聊天中隐喻型语码转换做了统计分析。
(二)标记理论
MyersScotton提出的“标记理论”(MarkednessModel)对语码转换的社会语言学研究作出了巨大的贡献。她把决定混合成分语法结构的语言称为“主体语言”(MatrixLanguage)，参与语码转换的其它语言称为“嵌入语言”(EmbeddedLanguage)。她的“标记理论”认为语码选择有“无标记”(Un-marked)和“有标记的”(Marked)的区别。[7]她认为语码代表着一组权利和义务,语码转换主要有两个目的：进行无标记选择和有标记选择。标记性模式从语码的社会价值角度对语码转换进行解释。[8]Myers-Scotton详尽阐述了有标记(marked)语码转换的模式。她认为所有的交谈者都有一套标记准则，这些准则有助于他们辨别有标记(marked)语码和无标记(unmarked)语码。80年代至90年代以来，学者们侧重研究语码转换的社会功能，并且把语码转换看成是一种“语境化提示”(contextualizationcue)。[9]近年来，国内许多学者也从社会语言学角度分析语码转换。如祝畹瑾的《语码转换功能及其体现模式》、杜辉的《语码转换与社会规则》等，都从社会语言学角度出发，对语码转换进行了研究和阐述。无标记语码被定义为“就现有的特定情景和因素而言，在社会标准既定的情况下的一种特殊语言变体的选择，它是一种可预料的话语交流媒介”，而有标记语码则是不可预料的。[10]一般情况下，网络聊天的语码转换属于无标记的语码转换(unmarkedchoice)，双方在特定的情况下选择心理感觉趋同的言语表达思维，维持二人正常的权利和义务关系，并由此得到预期的谈话结果。在另外一些时候，有标记的语码转换(markedchoice)则提示着话题的转变，说话人有意偏离目前对话双方现有的权力或义务关系，以及改变对话的语气目的。[11]。
三、网络聊天中“语码转换”的特点。
与日常会话一样，在虚拟的空间中，这种网络聊天中的“语码转换”同样可以精确、形象，逼真地传递信息，听话人也能准确理解和把握话语交流的意义。然而，在传递信息的过程中，网络聊天中施话者和受话者双方采取的话语交流方式与口头传递信息又有所区别，具有新的特点。首先，网络交际的双方是不见面的(只闻其声不见其人或只识其文)，参与者的身份比较隐蔽，说什么和怎样说都没有限制，这就导致了语言的随意性。加之，网上交际主要是利用键盘操作来实现，受打字速度和上网时间等诸多因素的限制，施话人总要尽量缩短受话人的等待时间，所以往往要按口语的特点来表达思想。其次，交际者从一种语言或语言变体转换另外一种语言或语言变体时，是以一种语码为主，其他语码为辅，有主有次。随着社会经济及语言教学的发展，在会话过程中，人们已不仅限于母语交流，外语也参入其中。因此，在本文中，笔者将采用定量描述和定性分析的方法，通过选取一些原用语为汉语，英语为嵌入语的实例，比较基于母语为汉语的网络用户在日常聊天中的现象，来描述和分析其社会功能与动机。
抱起亚轩找小葵
语言学词汇
1、语言学习策略的定义：外语学习研究者曾对语言学习策略进行了各个方面的探讨，提出了学习策略的多种定义，概括起来可以将语言学习策略定义为学习者在学习一门语言时，根据自身实际情况，为了有目的地对整个学习过程进行设计、计划、组织、监控和反馈以达到最佳学习效果所采用的活动方式和手段。
2、语言学习策略的分类
由于不同的学者对语言性能学习策略的定义有不同的界定，因此，有关学习策略的分类也就存在着很大的分歧。一般来说，语言学习策略可为元认知策略、认知策略和社交/情感策略。
（1）元认知策略（metacognitive strategies）
元认知策略是学生对自己认知过程的策略，包括对自己认知过程的了解和控制策略，有助于学生有效地安排和调节学习过程。它包括这些行为表现：提前准备（advance organizers）、集中注意（directed attention）、选择注意（selective attention）、自我管理（self-management）、事先练习（advance preparation）、自我监控(self-monitoring)、延迟表现（delayed production）、自我评价（self-evaluation）。
（2）认知策略（cognitive strategies）
认知策略（cognitive strategies）是学习者加工信息的一些方法和技术，有助于有效地从记忆中提取信息。其基本功能有两个方面：一是对信息进行有效的加工与整理；二是对信息进行分门别类的系统储存。一般而言，认知策略因所学知识的类型而有所不同，复述、精加工和组织策略主要是针对陈述性知识，针对程序性知识则有模式再认识策略和动作。它包括以下这些行为：重复（repetition）、翻译（translation）、归类（grouping）、记笔记（note-taking）、利用关键词（key word）、利用上下文情景（contextualization）、拓展（elaboration）、迁移（transfer）、推测（inference）。
（3）社交/情感策略 (social/affective strategies)。
社交／情感策略指在学习过程中用来促进学生合作和提高学习兴趣的策略。它包括：协作(cooperation)、提问澄清（questioning for clarification）、求助（questioning for help）。
3.影响语言学习策略的因素
影响语言学习策略的因素有很多，但主要可分为以下几种：
（1）学习动机
学习者的学习动机对于任何类型的学习都是至关重要的, 其中包括语言学习。动机影响到学习者愿意为语言学习付出多大的努力, 影响到他们在完成一项学习任务时会获得怎样的满足感和成就感。研究者发现学习动机和学习策略的选择和使用有着密切的关系。学习动机强的学习者比学习动机弱的学习者使用更多的学习策略, 而且不同的语言学习动机也会影响学习者选择不同的学习策略。Oxford和Erhman(1989)认为：在外语学习策略教学中, 如果忽视学习者的学习动机就会导致策略教学的失败；反过来, 使用相应的学习策略会提高学习者完成语言学习任务的积极性。
（2）学习风格
学习风格是指学习者在学习任何门类的知识时, 其中包括语言学习, 所采用的学习方法。Oxford(1990)第二语言学习研究发现：外语学习策略的选择经常受到学习者学习风格的制约。例如分析型的学习者多采用对比分析、规则学习和分析词汇和短语等语言学习策略而综合型学习者多采用猜测、查读、预测等策略来了解大概, 在遇到生词时, 他们还喜欢用已知词汇解释未知词汇或用手势语表达自己的意图。视觉型学者倾向使用基于视觉的学习策略，如记笔记和书写练习等策略辅助语言学习。听觉型学习者多采用听录音和大声朗读等外语学习策略。上述研究结果表明在进行策略教学之前有必要了解接受训练的学习者的学习风格以及他们偏好哪些外语学习策略。
（3）性别差异
性别差异在外语学习中日益受到研究者的重视。Erhman(1990)在研究报告中指出:女性学习者比男性学习者使用更多的社交策略而且使用频繁得多。Oxford和Erhman(1989)在研究中发现:尽管女性学习者比男性学习者更多、更频繁地使用学习策略, 但经过策略训练男性学习者会表现出相当的策略使用优势。然而, 在迄今为止所进行的策略教学和研究中, 性别差异却很少受到重视。如果研究者和教师能在策略教学中考虑性别因素,将男生和女生区别对待, 那么策略教学会取得更好的效果。
（4） 个性特征
在很多语言教师看来, 学习者的性格特征是关系到他们第二语言外语学习成败的一个重要因素。Griffiths(1991)的研究表明大部分教师和学习者都认为学习者的性格因素在外语学习中起着重要作用。内向、外向、冒险性、歧义容忍度、移情、自尊等个性特征变量都对外语的学习效果有不同程度的影响。研究者还发现某些个性特征关系到学习者的策略选择。有些研究者还提出有关性格特征和策略使用的假设。Oxford (1990)认为每一种性格特征都有采用某些学习策略的优势与倾向。例如,研究者普遍认为性格外向的学习者会采用更多的情感策略和视觉策略。一些研究者认为情感型的学习者会比思考型学习者使用更多的语言学习策略。尽管这些初步研究所得出的结论有待于进一步证实, 但在策略教学中教师不能忽略学习者的个性特征对策略教学效果可能产生的影响。
（5）年龄因素
年龄是制约学习者选择和使用外语学习策略的重要生理因素。人在不同的年龄阶段上，其认知水平、学习态度、学习动机以及在学习优势的体现上都有所不同。席格勒（R.S.Siegler,1986,1987）的研究发现，在获得策略的早期阶段，儿童多使用单一的策略，当儿童的作业从非技能型向技能型过渡时，策略运用的多重性就表现得很明显了。年纪小的学习者记忆力好，模仿力强，在记忆学习方面具有明显的优势；年纪大的学习者阅历广，认知能力和逻辑分析能力比较强，在分析学习中具有明显的优势。从文化学习角度来看，对于年龄小的学习者来讲，本民族文化对其心理结构影响不够深刻，更容易接受新的文化模式，甚至改变思维模式，所以从小生活在新的文化环境中的第二代移民文化适应程度较高；年龄大的学习者文化身份已经形成，即使可以理解或接受文化差异的现实,但是文化适应程度不高。
大圣杰锅是
商务英语
A
absolute universals 绝对共性[廖328]。
absolute case 通格[廖204]。
abstract construct 抽象结构[廖235]。
accessibility hierachy 辨认度[廖27]。
acceptability 可接受性[廖373]。
accommodation 让步，适应[陶]。
accompaniment adverb 交与副词[吕239]。
accomplishment 结束[陈147 159]。
accusative 受事格[廖346]。
accusative object 受事宾语[吕240]。
achievement 成就[陈147]。
act 行为[廖236]
act sequence 信息内容与形式[陶] 。
actional predicate 动作谓语[吕240]。
activated 被激发的[廖396 402]。
active 主动格[陈108]。
activity 活动[陈147 157]。
actual 实际[廖375]。
adequacy 切应性[陈51]。
adjacency 邻接关系[吕240]。
adjacency pairs 语对[陶]。
adjective 形容词[吕240]。
adjunct string 附加语符列[陈45]。
adjuncts 修饰语[廖27]。
adjusment model 调整模式[陈41]。
adposition 介词[吕240]。
advanced 高等[陶]
adverb 副词[吕240]。
adverb-fronting 副词前移[吕240]。
adverb-lowering 副词下降[吕240]。
affective 表情(作用)[陈9]。
affix 词缀[吕240]
Afrikanns 阿富堪斯[陶]。
age grading 年龄级差[陶]。
agent 施事[吕240]
agglutinating 粘着型[廖331]。
agglutinative 粘着型[陈107]。
agreement 一致[吕240]。
agreement maxim 同意的准则[廖369]。
AI(artificial intelligence) 人工智能[廖235]。
allocation of function 功能的分配[陶]。
allocation of use 用途的分配[陶]。
ambiguity 歧义[吕240]。
ambiguity maxim 歧义准则[廖370]。
American Council on Teaching Foreign Languages (ACTFL) 美国外语教学委员会[陶]。
American Institutes of Research 美国研究所[陶]。
analogues 模拟词[廖408]。
analytic 分析型[陈107]。
analytic causative 分析式使成式[廖345]。
anaphor 回指对象[陈182] 。
anaphora 指称替代[廖236] 回指形式[陈182] 。
anaphoric reference 回指[陈121 181][吕240]。
animacy 生命度[廖326 332 347 352]。
antecedent 先行词[陈182] 被代词[吕240]。
anterior 先事时[陈173]。
anterior future 先事将来时[陈174]。
anterior past 先事过去时[陈174]。
anterior present 先事现在时[陈174]。
anthropological 人类学的[廖235]。
anthropology 人类学[陶]。
Antigua 西印度群岛上的安梯瓜[陶]。
antipodals 对跖词[廖413]。
antonym 两极词[廖412]。
antonymy 两极关系[廖417] 。
apparent time 显象时间[陶]。
appositive clause 同位小句[吕240]。
approbation maxim 表扬的准则[廖369]。
appropriateness 合适性[廖374]得体性[陶]。
arbitrary 任意的[陶]。
archiphoneme 原音位[陈10]。
argument 论元[陈84 196] 参与者[吕240] 。
argument position 论元位[陈104]。
argumentation 论辩体[廖124]。
argumentative 论证[廖236]。
argumentative structure 论证结构[廖237]。
Aroucanians 智利的阿劳卡尼人[陶]。
article 冠词[吕240]。
aspect 时态[陈143] 态[吕240] 体[陶] 。
assert 肯定[吕240]。
assertion 肯定[吕240] 。
assertive 断言的[廖425]。
assign 分配[吕240]。
associated typology 关联类型学[廖331]。
atomic structure of sentences 句子的原始结构[吕240]。
attach to 系附于[吕240]。
attenuated 较单薄的[廖61]。
attributes 属性[廖435 449]。
attributive relative clause 修饰性关系小句[吕240]。
audience design 听众设计[陶]。
augmented transition network 扩展的转移网络[廖379]。
authentic 真实材料[陶]。
automatic translation 自动翻译[陈96]。
autonomous syntax 自主的句法[廖236]。
Autosegmental Phonology 自分音系理论[陶]。
auxiliary verb 助动词[吕240]。
B
Baby Talk娃娃腔 [陶]。
back-channel 衬托型反馈形式[陶]。
backgrounding 抑退[吕240]。
Bahasa Indonesia 巴萨印尼话[陶]。
ballooning(of rules) (规则)膨胀[吕240]。
banter principle 逗乐原则[廖369]。
bare noun 光杆名词[陈129]。
basic level 基本层次[廖417]。
basic level terms 典型层次词[廖436]。
Basque 巴斯克语[陶]
Bazaar Malay 集市马来话[陶]。
begging 乞求[陶]
behavioral norm 行为规范[陈106]。
Berber 柏柏尔语[陶]
beyond sentence grammar 超句语法[廖234]。
bi-cultural 双文化[陶]。
bidialectalism 双方言[陶]。
bilingual 说双语的人[陶]。
bilingualism 双语[陶]。
biunique 一一对应[陈11]。
bounded 有界的[陈168]。
boundedness 封闭性[廖438]。
bracketing 加括[吕241]。
brand new 全新的[廖399]。
bundle of features 特征束[陈10]。
C
camaraderie 同志式的[陶]。
cardinal reference-point 主要元音参考点[廖318]。
case-marker 格标记[吕241]。
case marking 格标记[廖340]。
Catalan 加泰窿语[陶]。
cataphoric reference 反指[陈206]。
catastrophic change 剧变，灾变[陶]。
catastrophism 剧变说，灾变说[陶]。
categorize 类化[陈103]。
categorization 范畴化[廖449]。
category 范畴[廖449][吕241]。
causal 因果性[陈117]。
causative construction 使成结构[廖326 344]。
cause adverb 原因副词[吕241]。
causee 使成者[廖345]。
causer 肇事者[廖345]。
center string 中心语符列[陈45]。
change in progress 进行中的变化[陶]。
chunk 信息块[陈89]
circumstantial role 附带成分[陈183]。
circumstantials 随遇成分[廖27]。
citation 引用[廖359]。
clarity principle 清楚原则[廖370]。
class 类[陈128]
classical 古语[陶]。
class-inclusion 类包括[吕241]。
classes of words 词类[吕241]。
classification 分类体[廖124]。
clause 小句[廖236][吕241]。
clause-internal rules 小句内部规则[吕241]。
cleft sentence 分裂句[陈240]。
clefting 分裂[吕241]。
closed network 封闭网络[陶]。
cluster 词群[廖408]。
code 代码[吕241]
code norm 代码规范[陈105]。
code-switching 语码转换[陶]。
codification 标准的健全[陶]。
coding 表现[陈163]。
coding device 编码手段[吕241]。
cognitive content 认识内容[吕241]。
cognitive correspondence 认知对应原则[陈104]。
cognitive function 认识功能[吕241]。
cognitive information 认知信息[陶]。
cognitive representation theory 认知表现理论[陈104]。
cognitive science 认知科学[廖380]。
cognitive synonymy 认知同义关系[廖406]。
coherence 意义连贯[廖373]。
cohesion 形式连贯[廖373]。
cohesive relationship 连贯关系[廖399]。
collaborative finish 合作完成式[陶]。
collocational restrictions 习惯性搭配限制[廖408]。
command 统御[陈68]。
comment 论述,陈述[廖333 396][陈187] 说明[吕241]。
commissives 承诺[廖423]。
common focus 共喻圈[吕242]。
common knowledge 共同知识[吕242]。
communication 传信[廖379]。
communication accommodation theory, CAT 交际适应理论[陶]。
communicative competence 交际能力[廖278]。
communicative force 实际用义[廖357]。
communicative language teaching 交际语言教学[陶]。
compactness 简洁[吕242]。
comparative 比较[吕242]。
compatibility 并存关系[廖407]。
competence 语言能力[陈18] 能耐[吕242]。
complementaries 互补词[廖411]。
complements 补足成分[廖27] 补语[吕242]。
complementizer 成形剂[吕242]。
complex change 复变[陈160]。
complex-NP-shift 复杂NP移位[吕242]。
complex sentence 复杂句[吕242]。
componentialist 要素分析者[廖438]。
compound interdependent 合成型[陶]。
compression rules 压缩规则[吕242]。
conative function 使动功能[廖313]。
conceptual dependency 概念从属(语法)[陈101]。
concord 一致[吕242]。
conditional adverb 条件副词[吕242]。
conditional coherence 条件连贯[陈83]。
configuration 构型[廖438]。
configurationality 组合性[陈108]。
congruence relations 一致关系[廖406]。
congruent 一致性[陶]。
congruent meronym 一致部件[廖407]。
conjoinability 可连接性[廖27]。
conjunction 连词/联合[吕242]。
conjunction-reduction 省并[吕242]。
connectivers 连接成分[廖451]。
constituency rules 组成成分规则[廖314]。
constituent class 成分类别[陈41]。
constituent ellipsis 成分省略[廖14]。
constituent insertion 成分插入[陶]。
constituent order 结构成分顺序[廖334]。
constitutive principles 构成原则[廖373]。
constant 常量[吕242]。
constraints 限制[廖328] 约束[吕242]。
construction grammar 结构语法[廖281]。
containment 包含[廖483]。
contemporary 当代[陶]。
content form 内容形式[陈9]。
content mode 内容表达式[廖359]。
content substance 内容实体[陈9]。
context 语境,上文[廖236 395]。
context of situation 言语情景；情景的上下文[陶]。
context-dependent structure/system 依靠语境的结构/系统[廖236]。
context-free rule 不受上下文约束的规则[吕242]。
context of situation 语境[廖319]。
context-sensitive rule 受上下文约束的规则[吕242]。
contextual relations 语境关系[廖404]。
contextual style 场合语体[陶]。
contextualization cues 语境线索[陶]。
continuity 连续性[陈187]。
continuous variable 连续变量[陶]。
continuum 连续体[陈64 162]。
contraction 语音省缩[吕242]。
contrary 指反[陈217]。
contrastive prominence 对比重音[吕242]。
control 自控力[廖332]。
convergence 靠近[陶]。
conversation 会话[廖236]。
conversational analysis,CA 对话分析[廖235] 会话分析[陶]。
conversational implicatures 话语蕴含[陶]。
conversational postulates 对话原则[廖361]。
converse 逆反词[廖413]。
co-occurrence constraint 共现约束[吕242]。
cooperative principle 合作原则[廖179 357]。
co-ordinate independent 并存型[陶]。
coordinate structure 并列结构[吕242]。
copula verb 系词[吕242]。
coreference 同一性关系[陈182]。
corpus planning 语型规划[陶]。
corrected mean 修正均值[陶]。
correspondence 对应[廖365]。
co-taxonyms 同类分类词[廖409]。
counteractive 反动关系[廖412]。
counterparts 对应词[廖413]。
covert prestige 隐威信[陶]。
creole 克里奥语,混合语[陶]。
criterial 判别性的[廖404]。
cross-cultural communication 跨文化的交际[陶]。
crossover 超越[陶]。
cultivation 培养[陶]。
current 邻接的[廖399]。
cycle 轮转[吕243]
cyclic application 循环使用[廖317]。
contrastive features 区别特征[陶]。
D
data 数据[廖236]
dative 与格[廖346]。
Davidian 达罗毗荼[陶]。
declaratives 宣告句[廖420] 。
declarative sentence 陈述句[吕243]。
de-creolization 克里奥尔脱化[陶]。
de-creolization continuum 克里奥尔脱化连续体[陶]。
deep structure 深层结构[吕243]。
default 常规选择[廖373]。
deferent 敬重[陶]
Deficit Hypothesis 语言缺陷论[陶]。
definite 有定[廖40]。
definiteness 定指度[廖342]。
definiteness of subject and object 主语和宾语的限定[廖237]。
degree-terms 程度词[廖411]。
deictic 指示词[吕243]。
deixis 指示词[廖195]。
deletion rules 消除规则[吕243]。
delicacy 精细度[廖319]。
demonstrative structure 论证结构[廖451]。
deontic modality 义务情态[廖419]。
dependency relation 依赖关系[吕243]。
derivational morphology 衍生构词[廖316] 构词形态[吕243]。
derived sentence 派生句[吕243]。
derived structure 派生结构[吕243]。
description 描写体[廖124]。
descriptive structuer 描写结构[廖237] 。
descriptivists 描写学派[廖308 322][陈11 35]。
design features 图案成分[廖309]。
destressing 轻音化[吕243]。
determiner 区别词[吕243]。
deviation 偏离[陶]。
diachronic derivability 历时可导性[陈116]。
diagram 图解[吕243]。
dialect 方言[陶]
dialect geography 方言地理学[廖264]。
dialectology 方言学[廖262]。
dialogic 对话性[陶]。
dialogue 对话[廖234 236]。
differentiable 可区分的[廖408]。
diglossia 双言制[陶]。
dimension 标度[廖211]。
dimensional model 层面模式[陈109]。
direct illocutions 直接表达式[廖361]。
direct object 直接宾语[吕243]。
directional adverb 趋向副词[吕243]。
directives 指令[廖423]。
direct speech 直接句[廖360]。
discourse 对话[廖379] 言谈[吕243]。
discourse analysis 篇章分析[廖181 234 310][陈25 55]。
discourse connectedness 篇章连贯[廖236]。
discourse connectives 篇章连接[廖236 237]。
discourse for special occasions 特别场合的篇章[廖236]。
discourse-functional syntax 篇章-功能句法[廖236]。
discourse-functionally motivated structure/system。
有篇章-功能理据的结构/系统[廖237]。
discourse genres 篇章类型[廖236]。
discourse intonation 篇章语调[廖236]。
discourse organization 篇章结构[廖236]。
discourse particles 篇章词[廖236]。
discourse perspective on syntax 篇章观点看句法[廖237]。
discourse predicate 篇章谓词[廖236 237]。
discourse scope 篇章管界[廖236 237]。
discourse units 篇章单位[廖236]。
discovery procedure 发现过程[廖309] 发现程序[陈11 43]。
discrete 离散的[廖332]。
displaced 间隔的[廖399]。
dissonance 不和谐[廖416]。
distant 距离，保持距离[陶]。
distinctive features 区别成分[廖317]。
distinctive feature theory 区别成分理论[廖313]。
distributionalists 分布学派[陈11]。
distribution universals 分布共性[廖338]。
divergence 分离[陶]。
Document Design Project, DDP 文献设计计划[陶]。
doing 做事[陶]
domain 认知领域[廖438]。
domain of predication 表述界域[吕243]。
domain of transformations 转换界域[吕243]。
domain theory 语域理论[陶]。
dominances 处理中心[廖373]。
dominant 显性[陈115]。
double articulation 双重分节[陈113]。
doublet 词对[廖408]。
dummy filler 傀儡成分[吕244]。
durative 持续[陈152]。
dynamic process 动态过程[陈64]。
E
early modern 现代早期[陶]。
ease of processing 循索的便利[吕244]。
eclectic 折中调和[陈70]。
economy principle 简练原则[廖370]。
effectiveness 有效性[廖374]。
efficiency 简易性[廖373]。
efficient 高效性[陈40]。
elaborated code 复杂语码[陶]。
elaboration 标准的扩建[陶]。
elementary sentence 初级句[陈45]。
ellipsis 省略[廖14 236]。
ellipsis of arguments and frams 主目和框架的省略[廖237]。
embed sentence 嵌入句[吕244]。
embedded construction 嵌套结构[陶]。
empirical evidence 立论依据[陈16]。
empty category 空语类[陈17]。
encode 表现[陈22]
end-focus maxim 焦点在尾准则[廖359 370]。
endocentric 内中心[吕244]。
endoglossic 本土的[陶]。
endonym 被包含词[廖408]。
ends 目标与效果[陶]
end-scope maxim 辖域在尾准则[廖370]。
end-weight maxim 重心在尾准则[廖359 370]。
entail 包含[廖194]。
entailment 包含关系[廖404]。
entity 实体[廖435][陈120]。
episodic memory 情节记忆[廖376]。
epistemic modality 知识情态[廖419]。
equi-NP-deletion 等名消除[吕244]。
equipollent antonyms 均等词[廖412]。
ergative-absolutive system 施-受格系统[廖333]。
ergative case 作格[廖204][陈108]。
ergativity 作格格局[廖196]。
ethnicity 民族[陶]。
ethno- 民族，民俗[陶]。
ethnographical 人群学的[廖235]。
ethnography of communication 交际民族志学[陶]。
ethnography of speaking 言语民族志学；交际人种志学[陶]。
ethnomethodological 民族学的[廖235]。
ethnomethodology 民俗方法论[陶]。
European Community 欧洲共同体[陶]。
evaluated participation, EP 参与估价[陶]。
evaluation 评价体[廖124] 评价[陶]。
evaluatives 评价[廖423]。
event 事件[廖236]
evidence 验证[吕244]。
evoked 激发的[廖399 402]。
exchange 交换[廖236]。
excluded 排斥的[廖404]。
exemplar 样本[廖435]。
existential sentence 存在句,呈现句[吕244]。
exocentric 外中心[吕244]。
exoglossic 外来的[陶]。
exonym 包含词[廖408]。
expansion rule 扩展规则[吕244]。
expected 预期的[廖404]。
experiencer 感受者[廖332]。
expert category 专业范畴[廖437]。
explicit 明确[陈37]。
expository 说明,说明体[124 236]。
exposition 说明体[廖124]。
expression form 表达形式[陈9]。
expression substance 表达实体[陈9]。
expressive discourse 抒情体[廖124]。
expressive function 表情功能[廖313]。
expressity principle 表达力原则[廖370]。
extended performative hypothesis 扩展表述句式假说[廖361]。
extraposition 外位[吕244]。
F
factive 叙实[吕244]。
factivity 实事性[吕244]。
falsification 证伪[陈26]。
family resemblance 家庭成员相似性[廖434]。
family resemblance category 家庭成员相似范畴[廖439]。
family tree theory 家族树理论[陈5]。
feature 特征[廖449]。
feature norm 特征规范[陈106]。
feedback 反馈[陶]
field 场域[陈79] 范围[陶]。
figure 人物[廖161]。
finished product 成品[陈86]。
finite-state grammar 有限状态语法[陈49]。
first pair part 上联[陶]。
flagged 插旗式，标记性[陶]。
flectional 融合性[廖331]。
Flemish 荷兰语的佛来米语[陶]。
focus 焦点[廖332][陈65]。
focus of information 信息焦点[陈235]。
focusing rules 聚焦规则[吕244]。
folk category 通俗范畴[廖437]。
folk taxonomy 民俗分类结构[廖409]。
force 动力,用意[廖332 357 360]。
foregrounding 突出[吕244]。
Foreign Service Institute美国外交学院[陶]。
foreigner talk 外国人腔[陶]。
formalism 形式主义[廖452]。
formalist 形式主义学派[陈14]。
formalist functionalism 形式功能主义[廖357]。
formal universals 形式共性[廖327]。
formation rules 成形规则[吕244]。
formulaic 套语性[陈112]。
forms of communication 交际形式[陶]。
forms of speech 言语形式[陶]。
fossilize 僵化[陶]。
frame 框架[廖400 438 451][陈82] 交际框架[陶]。
framing 框架[陶]
frequency adverb 频次副词[吕245]。
fronting 前化[陈6]。
fronting rules 移前规则[吕245]。
full turn 正式的话轮[陶]。
function assignment 功能分配[陈96]。
function of communication 交际功能[陶]。
functional coherence 功能连贯[廖236][陈83]。
functional communicative activities 功能性交流活动[陶]。
functionalism 功能主义[廖452]。
functionalist 功能主义学派[陈14]。
functional sentence perspective 功能的句子透视[廖374][陈56]。
function yield 功能值[廖313]。
functor-content hierarchy 虚-实词等级[廖338]。
future 将来时[陈173]。
G
gapping 缺略[吕245]。
gender 性[吕245]
general 普遍性[陈40]。
general linguistics 普通语言学[廖274 320]。
general linguistic theory 普通/遍语言理论[廖275]。
general pragmatis 普通语用法[廖365]。
Generalized Phrase Structure Grammar 普遍短语结构语法[陈14]。
generate 概括,定义,规范[廖314 322] 生成[吕245]。
generation difference 代差[陶]。
generative grammar 生成语法[廖322]。
generative phonology 生成音系学[廖318]。
generative sementics 生成语义学[廖345][陈19 59]。
generative syntax 生成句法学[廖318]。
genres 言语体裁[陶] 。
generic 通指[陈119 167]。
generic level 属层[廖409]。
generosity maxim 宽宏的准则[廖369]。
genetic 起源性[陈116]。
genetic linguistics 谱系语言学[陈109]。
gerund formation 动名词形成[吕245]。
gerundivization 动名词化[吕245]。
given information 已知信息[陈78 187 234]。
global coherence 总体连贯[陈83]。
globally 总的[廖359]。
glossematics 语符学[廖316 322]。
glosseme 语符[陈9]。
goal 对象[吕245]
Government and Binding 支配与约束理论[陈14]。
grade-terms 渐变词/成分[廖411][陈162]。
gradualism 均变说[陶]。
grammar 语法[廖357 371]。
grammaticality 合乎语法[廖314]。
grammaticality judgement 语法判别能力[陶]。
grammaticalization 语法化[陈23]。
grammaticalness 合语法性[吕245]。
Great Vowel Shift 元音大换位[陶]。
H
Hausa 豪萨语[陶]
head 中心语[陈45]
hearsay 听说[廖421]。
heavier element principle 大块头原则[吕245]。
hedge 模棱话[陶]
hedges 边界词[廖437]。
heterogeneity 复杂性或异质性[陶]。
heterogeneous 异质的[陈152]。
hierarchical structure 层次构造/结构[陈28 39]。
hierarchy 等级结构[廖328 408]。
hierarchy of accessibility to relativization。
关系子句化的可即度等级[廖343]。
hierarchy of individuation 个体化等级[廖348]。
hierarchy of saliency 显著性等级[廖348]。
high key 高音[廖441]。
high variety 高变体[陶]。
higher mental function 高级智力功能[陶]。
higher-order predicate 高次位词[陈196]。
Hindi 印地语[陶]
historical linguistics 历史语言学[廖349]。
holistic typology 整体类型[廖331]。
homogeneous 均质的[陈152] 同质的[陶]。
hortatory 规劝/诱导体[廖124 236]。
hypercorrection 矫枉过正[陶]。
hypoconverse 下逆反词[廖407]。
hyponymy 下义关系[廖406]。
I
ICAO 国际民航组织[陶]
idea unit 思想单位[陈102]。
ideal speaker 理想的说话人[廖308]。
ideational 表义部分[廖358] 意念成分[陈78]。
ideational function 表义功能[廖364]。
identical deletion 承前删除[廖14]。
identifiable 定指[陈119]。
identifying function 鉴别功能[吕246]。
idiolect 个人语言[陈26]。
idiomaticity 惯用性质[陈111]。
ill-formed 非完美形式[陈48] 不协调[吕246]。
illocutions 行事作用[陈96]。
immediate constituents 直接成分[陈36]。
imperative sentence 命令句[吕246]。
imperfective 不完全态[陈177] 未完成态[吕246]。
Implementation 标准的实施[陶]。
implicate 蕴含[陶]。
implicational hierarchy 蕴含层级[廖433]。
implicational universals 蕴含共性[廖327 328][陈108]。
implicature 会话蕴含,含义,蕴含义[廖195 365 395][陈65]。
improbability 不可能[廖416]。
inappropriateness 不合适[廖408]。
inceptive 始事态[吕246]。
inclusive 包容性[陈40]。
incompatibility 排斥关系[廖407]。
incongruence 不调合[廖408]。
incongruent非一致性[陶]。
incoroporating 聚合型[廖331]。
incrementation 增长[吕246]。
indefinite-agent-deletion 无定施事消除[吕246]。
indefinite article 无定冠词[吕246]。
indefinite-NP-deletion 无定名词短语消除[吕246]。
in-depth 深探式[陈27]。
index 指标[陶]
index of fusion 融合度[廖331]。
index of status characteristics, ISC地位特征指数[陶]。
index of synthesis 合成度[廖331]。
indexical information 特征信息[陶]。
indexical meaning 检索意义[陶]。
indexicality of sign 符号的引得属性[陶]。
indicative 直陈语气[吕246]。
indicator 指示项[陶]。
indirect converse 间接逆反词[廖413]。
indirect illocutions 间接表达式[廖361]。
indirect speech 间接句[廖360]。
indirect speech act 间接讲话行为[廖361]。
individual 单指[陈119] 个体[陈128]。
inference 推论[廖395]。
inferrable 可推导的[廖399]。
inflected 曲折型[陈107]。
inflection 构形变化[吕246]。
inflectional morphology 构形形态[吕246]。
information structure 信息结构[陈66]。
information theory 信息论[陶]。
information unit 信息单位[陈66 78]。
informativity 信息度[廖373]。
inherent 固有的[陶]。
inner city 内城[陶]。
innateness 天赋论[廖328]。
insertion rules 插入规则[吕246]。
instantiate 例示[廖435]。
instrumental adverb 工具副词[吕246]。
instrumentalities 交际工具[陶]。
instantiation 体现[陈77]。
intellectual revolution 知识革命[陶]。
intelligibility 可懂度[陶]。
intensifier 强度副词[吕246]。
intensional verb 愿望副词[吕246]。
intention 意图[吕246]。
intentionality 有目的性[廖373]。
interaction 相互影响[廖236] 交流，互动[陶]。
interactional 相互作用的[廖394] 交流大纲[陶]。
interactive 互动关系[廖412]。
interest principle 有趣原则[廖369]。
interjection 叹词[吕246]。
interlanguage 中介语[陶]。
interlinguistics 语际语言学[陈96]。
intermediate 中等[陶]。
interpersonal 人际成分[陈78]。
interpersonal rhetoric 人际修辞[廖358 363]。
inter-personal variation 个人之间的变异[陶]。
interpretive semanticists 解释语义学派[陈19]。
interr
小韩在追星
谁有《朗读者》这部电影的英文简介？急！！
Introduction
There is now a significant set of business English (BE) students or learners for whom New International Business English can be of great value: I am referring to the growing numbers of tertiary level business administration and general business studies students, particularly in Europe, but also elsewhere. I myself am responsible for BE at a very large Austrian university of economics and business administration where 90% of the students enrolled in BE courses are pre-experience students (students with no previous experience of working in a business environment). 。
We find ourselves confronted with many questions in connection with this category of student. How many students in the world study English as a foreign language while pursuing business studies at university or college? How many such students have work-experience before they learn English? How do the different institutions weight the relative demands of English for study and academic purposes and English for (future) occupational purposes? These are just some of the potential unknowns which syllabus and curriculum planners, materials producers, advisers and business teachers might benefit from having answers to. For instance, what business English skills and knowledge will be needed to cater for all the potential students on such courses? What types of students are we dealing with? 。
What are they going to do after their university course? 。
When they begin their course the vast majority of tertiary level BE students have no clear idea how they will eventually need to employ their BE skills. To be sure, we have all seen 'needs analyses' from industry and commerce. These may serve as an overall index of some of the BE needs, but teachers in tertiary level institutions will know how unpredictable professional and even learning activities are becoming nowadays. If I had been told 10 years ago that my students would today be employing the Internet as a resource for their seminar papers on business matters (with all the accompanying pitfalls entailed), I would not have believed it. Similarly, many predictions being made today are unlikely to become realistic practices in the future. When tomorrow becomes today, or even yesterday, we are all much wiser. 。
How can curriculum planners and BE teachers cope with this degree of uncertainty? I would argue that there are a number of basics which BE students/learners cannot do without. Given the high numbers of lower to upper intermediate level students on university courses, the importance of a structured approach to business English becomes self-evident. Some of the principles that guided Leo Jones and myself in the selection and arrangement of the material in New International Business English are described below. 。
Need for a structured approach to business English 。
The rationale, which underlies New International Business English, fits in very well with the needs and requirements of those tertiary level BE syllabuses which aim to prepare pre-experience business students to use English in their future professional settings. Such courses need to try to achieve two things: to strengthen and enhance the somewhat shaky core English skills and knowledge of our learners, as well as to simultaneously build up students' BE skills. These courses should not be too demanding in terms of prior business-related knowledge and experience - otherwise they will go over the heads of many, if not most, of our students. 。
Business English language instruction in this setting is tightly constrained: both in terms of available time and of the prior knowledge of our students. Principled selection of material is therefore a must. This has to factor in two major elements: our students' limited business experience, and teachers' own assessments of the relative utility of differing language skills needed for business. Either way, the outcome teachers provide has to be within a framework of systematically structured learning and teaching. 。
We all know the disparate starting points of BE students in tertiary education, as I have already mentioned. But in view of their broad spread around the intermediate level a structured approach to business English will provide them with a support system. 。
I will mention some of the fairly essential basic English skills such students tend to lack and hence need practice in. These include the following: knowing how to pronounce English (words, phrases, whole utterances), knowing how to read (aloud) a whole passage in English, how to spell words in English, how numbers are spoken in English, how to count in English, how to master business-relevant words and phrases, and control business-necessary intermediate level grammar; as well as knowing the English names of letters, punctuation marks and symbols.。
New International Business English provides a principled rationale for tertiary level Business English 。
New International Business English provides a number of natural business environments in which to situate and practise these basics. In the following summary I indicate how this principle is put into operation in New International Business English. 。
Spelling
Knowing how to spell words (names) out loud in English (spelling aloud) is essential. Practice is given in getting names and addresses right in commercial correspondence. Section 2.2 of New International Business English places emphasis on S-P-E-L-L-I-N-G A-L-O-U-D. In business people need to be able to use the alphabet fluently and also to understand other people when they spell words or names out loud. Section 3.3 is a further example of where spelling aloud is integrated into an exercise covering the skills of taking notes and leaving messages. 。
Vocabulary
In BE classes we will also clearly need to encourage vocabulary learning - but how? In order to deliver 'high-priority vocabulary' for students it is necessary to select and present relevant lexis for business English in a principled fashion. It is important to stress how vocabulary learning can benefit from contextualization and activization. New International Business English aims to do precisely this. The texts, instructions, exercises and recordings contain much of the 'business' vocabulary that students will require. The majority of this vocabulary is assimilated as students carry out a task-related activity and should not be taught 'separately' out of context. The Workbook contains exercises on the vocabulary related to the particular theme of the unit. These exercises are designed to introduce business-related vocabulary and terms which have not occurred elsewhere in exercises or tests. Unfamiliar terms and vocabulary for the pre-service students are contextualized by the New International Business English Workbook, which provides sets of helpful background information at the beginning of each unit for pre-experience students. 。
An intermediate level individual lexicon can usefully include items such as the ICC Incoterms which are used to facilitate the terms of a deal. (Incoterms are an internationally agreed set of rules published by the International Chamber of Commerce to facilitate the cross-border interpretation of trade terms.) These are dealt with in Unit 6 and the New International Business English Workbook too. These and other sections provide the structured input of relevant words and phrases which need to be mastered. 。
Writing conventions 。
Business writing conventions in English are often a major obstacle in intermediate BE courses. New International Business English has two basic units which focus explicitly on the major written business genres: Unit 2 Letters, faxes and memos and Unit 4 Summaries, notes, reports. It is also clearly acknowledged that, despite the spread of telephones, writing will continue to play a significant role in business. The updated edition of New International Business English includes the option to write either an e-mail or fax or letter - at the discretion of the teacher and the students. 。
Spoken English in core business situations 。
Pre-service students can benefit from being confronted with models for behaviour in core business situations. New International Business English allows this to be done in a series of integrated activities, where the real business world can be presented, anticipated and simulated. Relationships and behaviour at meetings are discussed and practised in Unit 11 as well as elsewhere. Units 13 and 14 treat job interview panels and various aspects of sales including the preliminary demonstration and the stages of commercial negotiations respectively. The principle behind integrated activities consists in allowing a mix of the four language skills to be practised in as realistic a fashion as the pedagogical situation allows. This is a key necessity for tertiary students at this level. 。
Conclusion
Faced with large groups of young, pre-experience students enrolled in the early stages of business administration courses, it is impossible for us to know which specific business area they are likely to end up in. Yet, the learning discipline of BE and the accompanying academic and study skills may well contribute to the broader transferable skills demanded by today's more flexible job market. 。
I hope the structured approach to business English which underlies the design of New International Business English can provide you with a satisfactory answer to the dilemmas that you face as a BE teacher as you deal with intermediate level business English students in college, university and related pedagogical settings.。
小韩在追星
简介
THE READER opens in post-WWII Germany when teenager Michael Berg becomes ill and is helped home by Hanna, a stranger twice his age. Michael recovers from scarlet fever and seeks out Hanna to thank her. The two are quickly drawn into a passionate but secretive affair. Michael discovers that Hanna loves being read to and their physical relationship deepens. Hanna is enthralled as Michael reads to her from "The Odyssey," "Huck Finn" and "The Lady with the Little Dog." Despite their intense bond, Hanna mysteriously disappears one day and Michael is left confused and heartbroken. Eight years later, while Michael is a law student observing the Nazi war crime trials, he is stunned to find Hanna back in his life - this time as a defendant in the courtroom. As Hanna's past is revealed, Michael uncovers a deep secret that will impact both of their lives. THE READER is a story about truth and reconciliation, about how one generation comes to terms with the crimes of another. Written by The Weinstein Company 。
Middle aged German barrister Michael Berg recollects to himself his lifelong acquaintance with Hanna Schmitz, a relationship with whom he never disclosed to anyone close to him. Michael first met Hanna in 1958, when he was fifteen, she thirty-one. The two had a turbulent summer long love affair, dictated by Hanna that their encounters would begin with him reading to her followed by lovemaking. Michael next encountered Hanna in 1966, when Michael, now a law student, attended the Nazi war crimes trial of five female former S.S. concentration camp guards, one of whom is Hanna. Through listening to the testimony, Michael comes to the realization that he is in possession of information which could save Hanna from a life in prison, information which she herself is unwilling to disclose. In deciding what to do, Michael is torn between his differing views of justice.。
较详细的
Michael Berg (David Kross), a fifteen year old young man living in Berlin in 1958, gets off the tram, ducks into a doorway and vomits. An woman in her mid thirties (Kate Winslet) sees him and, after cleaning up after him, helps him get home. The doctor diagnoses him with scarlet fever and orders three months bedrest. All Michael can do is examine his stamps and bide his time.。
When he is better, he returns to the apartment building to deliver a bouquet of flowers in thanks to the woman. She is matter of fact with him but asks him to escort her to work on the tramline. But when she catches him spying on her as she dresses, he runs away in shame. When he returns to apologize a few days later, she seduces him. He persuades her to tell him her name -- Hanna. Michael returns to her every day after school, rejecting the clear interest of girls his own age. She asks him to read to her, and he brings her great works of world literature. He sells his stamps so they can go on a bicycle tour in the countryside. When Hanna is promoted by the tram company, she becomes unsettled and snaps at Michael when he tries to read her Chekhov's "The Lady with the Dog." They make love one last time and she then moves away without telling him where she is going. Michael is heartbroken.。
Eight years later (1966), Michael attends Heidelberg Law School. He is part of a seminar on the Holocaust, taught by Rohl (Bruno Ganz). The class attends the joint trial of six former guards at Auschwitz. Michael is shocked to learn that Hanna is one of the defendants. He is appalled to learn that Hanna was responsible for selecting Jewish women to be sent to death camps and was part of the forced march of hundreds of Jews from one camp to another; when the building in which the Jewish women were being housed overnight was set afire, Hanna and the other guards let them burn to death because to free them would have risked too much chaos. Hanna does not deny what she did and even rationalizes it. During testimony, it is revealed that Hanna had had camp prisoners read to her at night. The other guards claim that Hanna was the instigator of all the crimes and, rather than submit to a handwriting sample to disprove their claims, agrees with them. In the audience, Michael realizes that Hanna wanted others to read to her because she is illiterate. Urged on by Rohl but disturbed by a classmate who believes former Nazis should be killed, Michael tries to visit Hanna in prison to encourage her to tell the truth but, ashamed of his past with her, decides not to. Hanna is sentenced to life in prison.。
As an adult, Michael (Ralph Fiennes) marries and has a daughter but remains emotionally withdrawn. His marriage ends and he becomes distant from his daughter. Discovering the books he had read to Hanna decades earlier, he re-establishes contact with her by reading the books into a tape recorder and sending them to her in prison. Using them as a guide, Hanna teaches herself to read and write. She sends him letters in return but he never responds. When it is time for her parole in 1990, Michael is the only person the prison social worker can contact. He reluctantly agrees to sponsor Hanna. He finds an apartment and job for her but, when he visits her a week before she is to be released, he is aloof to her. She tells him that before the trial, she never thought about what she did as an SS guard but thinks about nothing else now. After he leaves, she commits suicide. In her will, she asks Michael to give her life's savings to the family of one of the prisoners at Auschwitz. Michael visits the woman's daughter (Lena Olin) in New York and confesses his affair with Hanna for the first time. She refuses to forgive or accept the money but instead takes the tea tin Hanna had kept the money in, as it reminds her of a tin she had before she was sent to Auschwitz as a child. They agree to give the money to a Jewish literacy organization.。
In 1995, Michael reunites with his daughter, Julia (Hannah Herzsprung), who has just returned from a year in Paris. He admits his failings as a father and drives her to a church that he and Hanna had visited during their bicycle tour nearly forty years earlier. He shows her Hanna's grave and begins to tell her his and Hanna's story.。
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''The Reader'' begins in 1995 Berlin, where a well-dressed Michael Berg is preparing breakfast for a woman who has one-night stand|spent the night at his apartment. The two part awkwardly, and as Michael watches an Berlin S-Bahn pass by outside afterwards the film flashes back to another tram in 1958 Neustadt. An unhappy-looking teenaged Michael gets off but wanders around the streets afterwards, finally pausing in the entryway of a nearby apartment building where he starts to vomiting|vomit. Hanna Schmitz, the tram Conductor, comes in and assists him in returning home. Michael is diagnosed with scarlet fever and must rest at home for the next three months. After he recovers he visits Hanna at her apartment and thanks her. The two begin an affair that lasts through that summer. Their liaisons, at her apartment, are characterized by him reading literary works he is studying in school to her, such as ''The Odyssey'', "The Lady with the Dog" and ''The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn''. After the two go on a bicycling trip and Hanna is promoted to the offices at the tram company, she abruptly moves without letting Michael know where she has gone.。
After another brief return to the adult Michael, who drives to a court where he is a lawyer, we see him again at Heidelberg University in 1966. As part of a special seminar taught by Professor Rohl, a camp survivor, he observes a trial of several women who were accused of letting 300 Jewish women die in a burning church when they were SS guards on the Death marches following the 1944 evacuation of Auschwitz concentration camp. Michael is stunned to see that Hanna is one of the defendants.。
He visits a former camp himself to try to come to terms with this. The trial divides the seminar, with one student angrily saying there is nothing to be learned from it other than that evil acts occurred. He tells Rohl that the older generation of Germans should kill themselves for their failure to act then and now.。
The key evidence is the testimony of Ilana Mather, a young Jewish woman who has written a memoir about how she and her mother survived. When Hanna testifies, unlike her fellow defendants, she admits that she was aware Auschwitz was an extermination camp and that the ten women she chose during each month's were subsequently gassed. She denies authorship of a report on the barn fire, despite pressure from the other defendants, but then admits it when asked to provide a handwriting sample.。
Michael then realizes Hanna's secret: she is illiterate and has made many of her life choices to conceal that. Even her choice to join the SS was made because of her desire to avoid a job promotion meaning she would have had to reveal her illiteracy. Without being specific, Michael informs Rohl that he has information favorable to one of the defendants but is not sure what to do since the defendant herself wants to avoid disclosing this. Rohl tells him that if he has learned nothing from the past there is no point in having the seminar.。
Hanna receives a ife sentence for her role in the church deaths while the other defendants get terms of a few years. Michael meanwhile marries, has a daughter and divorces. Rediscovering his books and notes from the time of his affair with Hanna, he begins reading some of those works into a tape recorder. He sends the cassettes and another tape recorder to her in prison. Eventually she uses these to teach herself to read the books themselves from the prison library, and writes back to him.。
Michael does not write back or visit, but keeps sending tapes, and in 1988 the prison's warden writes to him to seek his help in arranging for her after her forthcoming release. He finds a place for her to live and a job, and sees her in person to tell her these things. The night before her sentence ends she hangs herself and leaves a note to Michael and a tea tin with cash in it.。
Later, Michael travels to New York. He meets Ilana and confesses his past relationship with Hanna to her. He tells her that Hanna was illiterate for most of her life but that her suicide note told him to give both the cash, some money she had in a bank account and the tea tin to Ilana. After telling Michael there is nothing to be learned from the camps and that he should go to the theater if he is seeking catharsis. Michael suggests that he donate the money to a organization that combats adult illiteracy, preferably a Jewish one, and she agrees. Ilana keeps the tea tin since it is similar to one she herself had owned before being sent to the camps, where it was taken from her to be melted down.。
The film ends with Michael getting back together with his daughter, Julia, whom he admits he has grown apart from. He takes her to Hanna's grave and begins to tell her the story. 。
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